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1
Q

evolutionary hypothesis basics

A
  • men look for women who are likely to reproduce successfully (young and therefore fertile + physically attractive)
  • women are looking for successful men who can provide for offspring (older + successful + physically strong etc)
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2
Q

anisogamy

A

form of sexual reproduction that involves union or fusion of 2 gametes that differ in size and form

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3
Q

types of sexual selection

A

intersexual
intrasexual

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4
Q

intersexual selection

A
  • between the sex
  • females choose the males
  • females have less reproductive potential and so it is important that they make the right decision
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5
Q

intrasexual selection

A
  • within the same sex
  • males compete with each other to be chosen by females - by impressing or charming them
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6
Q

why did trivers propose the parental investment theory

A
  • males can produce lots of sperm for much of their life but females make a greater investment in offspring
  • because of this females choose males that are able to and/or willing to invest in their offspring. these males achieve a higher reproductive success
  • as a result of these differences trivers proposed the parental investment theory: women are choosier than men as they are investing more in their offspring
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7
Q

cross cultural research into partner preferences

A

Buss 1989:
- studied partner preferences in 33 different countries
- 10,000 men and women agd 16-28 were asked about their preferences
- in all cultures her found that men valued physical attractiveness more than women and valued women younger than themselves. women valued financial success and ambition more.
- this research reflect sex differences due to anisogamy and supports predictions about partner preferences from sexual selection theory.

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8
Q

evaluation of cross cultural research into partner preferences

A
  • whilst Buss managed to represent a wide diversity of cultural groups, his sampling techniques varied from country to country.
  • this problem may decrease the validity of the research as the lack of consistency in sampling may lead to confounding variables.
  • in addition, as the data was collected through self reporting, participants may not be accurate in perceptions of their own behaviour and may have displayed demand characteristics in order to provide researchers with answers they believe they would want.
  • this study also do not explain why certain individuals deviate from the results displayed e.g why do some men have a preference for older women.
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9
Q

why is cross cultural research so important in evolutionary psychology

A
  • if similar findings, patterns or trends are found in different areas of the world, it suggests a universality in nature i.e being innate and natural to all humans - supporting evolutionary theory
  • if there are differences in behaviour from one place to another, it supports the influence of culture on behaviour, challenging evolutionary theory
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10
Q

sexual selection as proposed by charles darwin

A
  • if a male characteristic enhances reproductive success, it becomes established as a preference among females so males are under pressure to improve on that characteristic
  • males with the trait are preferred and the trait is passed on
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11
Q

evidence to refute darwin’s sexual selection ‘theory’

A

handicap hypothesis - zahavi
- may be true that certain characteristics seem maladaptive but the very fact that their owners present them are still alive and healthy indicates great survival skills
- they’ve overcome a potential handicap (in terms of survival) and so are a ‘good catch’. these exaggerated features/characteristics are a type of ‘fitness indicator’

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12
Q

fitness indicator definition

A
  • anything which suggests presence of good genes, survival skills or parenting potential
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13
Q

fitness indicator issue

A
  • fitness indicators can be faxed
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14
Q

example of honest indicator in humans

A
  • facial symmetry
  • psychologically difficult to fake.
  • waist-to-hip ratio in famles is another
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15
Q

consequences of sexual selection

A
  • sexual dimorphism
  • facial characteristics
  • body shape
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16
Q

sexual dimorphism as a consequence of sexual selection

A
  • physical differences between the sexes
  • human males are generally larger as it is suggested humans evolved in a polygynous mating system with more intense sexual competition between males than females
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17
Q

facial characteristics as a consequence of sexual selection

A
  • research shows that females with neotenous features are universally thought of as more attractive
  • research has shown that males with strong jaws and large noses are more attractive (thornhill and gangestad)
  • bruce and young found a preference for symmetrical faces
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18
Q

body shape as a consequence of sexual selection

A
  • singh: found a preference for waist to hip ratio of 0:7. this produces an hour-glass body shape
  • preference persists despite a figure being curvier or slimmer
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19
Q

evidence to support partner preferences

A

Lonely Hearts:
- Dunbar 1995 used 9– personal ads from north American newspapers
- 42% of men wanted a younger partner
- 25% of women wanted a younger partner
- 44% of men sought a physically attractive woman
- 22% of women sought a physically attractive man

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20
Q

mating strategies

A

monogamy
polygyny
polyandry
promiscuity

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21
Q

monogamy

A

mates with one partner

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22
Q

polygyny

A

one man with multiple women

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23
Q

polyandry

A

one women with multiple men

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24
Q

promiscuity

A

both partners with multiple partners

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25
Q

study to support differences in reproductive behaviour

A
  • men have more of a tendency to engage in casual sex
    clark and hatfield :
  • strangers of the opposite sex were approached and offered to either go out that night, go back to their house or to have sex with them
  • results: 50% of men and women agreed to first
  • 69% of men agreed to second but only 6% of women agreed
  • 0% women agreed by 75% of men agreed to C
  • These results support the theories made about sexual selection (that women are more choosy with their partners as they want men that are willing to invest in their offspring).
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26
Q

evaluation of study to support differences in reproductive behaviour

A
  • norms of sexual behaviour are changing rapidly and evolutionary theories cannot account for these changes
  • Bereckej et al argue that women’s participation in the labour market has had consequences for mating preferences which may no longer be resource oriented
  • chang compared partner preferences over 25 years and found that some had changed but others remained the same, corresponding with huge social changes in that time
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27
Q

evidence to support mating strategies

A
  • norman and kendrick
  • investigated what the desirable traits were for men and women seeking a one night stand
    -if you were to have a one night stand, which characteristics would be more important: kindness, physical attractiveness, vitality, generosity, humour
  • they found that both men and women rated physical attractiveness the most
  • they concluded that men chose this because it indicates fertility and women choose it because it indicates good genes for their offspring
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28
Q

parental investment theory

A
  • trivers proposes that differences between males and females exist because they can make different amounts of investment in their offspring
    males:
  • males have a large amount of sperm and remain fertile
  • best way to increase his reproductive success is to have many matings with multiple partners
    females:
  • human females invest much more in each offspring
  • eggs only produced once a month
  • pre and post natal investment is large
  • best strategy is to ensure survival of each offspring
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29
Q

study to support idea of sexual jealousy

A
  • buss asked male and female students to imagine their current partner:
    a. having sex with someone else
    b. in love with someone else
  • men more distressed by a
  • women more distressed by b
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30
Q

evaluation of parental investment theory

A
  • helps understand mate preferences: women seek men with good genes and who shows commitment to help raise the offspring: explained by buss’ findings (men prefer younger women because they’re fertile). also explains why men engage in short term matings and women are more reluctant
  • explains difference in sexual jealousy
  • doesn’t explain why some women have one night stands and some men are unfaithful
  • doesn’t explain the existence of homosexual and other relationships which are non-reproductive
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31
Q

content analysis

A
  • type of observational research
  • essentially involves scanning material in order to identify whether certain specified characteristics are present e.g a word, phrase, visual feature etc
  • used to make qualitative data into quantitative
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32
Q

how to conduct a content analysis

A
  • read through content
  • identify/ devise important categories/ themes
  • example of possible categories/themes
  • work through content repeatedly
  • count/ tally number of occurnces
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33
Q

pros of self disclosure

A
  • displays a level of trust
  • forms a bond
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34
Q

cons of self disclosure

A
  • might put them off/ scare them off
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35
Q

social penetration theory

A
  • altman and taylor
  • says that self-disclosure is the gradual process of revealing your inner self to someone else
  • in romantic relationships, we give away our deepest thoughts or feelings in a reciprocal exchange
  • by revealing personal information we are displaying trust
  • for other relationship to go further, the other person must also reveal sensitive info, thereby penetrating more deeply into each other’s lives
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36
Q

breadth and depth

A
  • in the early stages of a relationship, if we reveal too much too soon, we risk putting our relationship in jeopardy before it even develops
  • as the relationship develops, self disclosure becomes deeper and encompasses a wider range of topics, especially concerning those things that matter to us
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37
Q

reciprocity of self disclosure

A
  • reis and shaver asset that breadth and depth are not sufficient for a relationship to develop. there must be a reciprocal element to disclosure
  • once you’ve disclosed something that reveals your true self, hopefully your partner will respond in a way that is rewarding.
  • this leads to a balance of self disclosure between both partners, deepening the relationship
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38
Q

factors involved in self disclosure

A
  • appropriateness of disclosure
  • attributions for the disclosure
  • gender differences
  • contents of disclosure
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39
Q

how does appropriateness affect self disclosure

A
  • sometimes self disclosure is inappropriate
  • is what is being said going against social norms?
  • those who contravene social norms will be seen as maladjusted and lacking in social skills
  • more attractive people will be more sensitive to norms
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40
Q

how do attributions for disclosure affect self disclosure

A
  • less attraction occurs if an individual is seen as the kind of person who discloses personal information to everyone, or if the situation is appropriate
  • more attraction occurs if we believe an individual sees us as someone they specifically want to disclose intimate info0 to
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41
Q

how do gender differences affect self-disclosure

A
  • women are generally seen as better communicators of and more interested in intimate info
  • males may not be used to this and so feel threatened by females self-disclosing intimate details
  • alternatively, self-disclosure by a male may be seen as very rewarding by a female as it indicates he especially wants to disclose personal info to her
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42
Q

how does content of disclosure affect self disclosure

A
  • generally intimate disclosure are seen favourably
  • however, disclosure of highly intimate info may be seen as inappropriate and a violation of social norms especially if the relationship is in its early stages
  • could decrease attraction as recipient of info may feel threatened and unsure of how to respond
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43
Q

studies to support self disclosure

A
  • collins and miller
  • sprecher and hendrick
  • laurenceau
  • hass and stafford
  • tang et al
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44
Q

collins and miller study

A
  • conducted a meta analysis to support idea of positive correlation between self-disclosure and romantic attraction
  • found that people who engage in intimate disclosures tend to be more liked than people who disclose at lower levels
  • therefore a link can be observed between self-disclosure and liking; both of which are key in the development and maintenance of relationships
  • these links can be drawn from the results showing that individuals are more attracted to people are willing to disclose and share personal info
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45
Q

collins and miller counter argument

A
  • however, research can rarely distinguish between friendships, companionship or romantic relationships, making it difficult to assess the role that self disclosure has on romantic relationships.
  • self disclosure may just link to intimate relationships and therefore it is a partial explanation
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46
Q

sprecher and hendrick

A
  • concept of self disclosure has been investigated in numerous studies e.g sprecher and hendrick
  • they studied heterosexual dating couples and found strong positive correlations between several measures of relationship satisfaction and self-disclosure
  • this study supports the idea that self disclosure is a key component of committed romantic relationships
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47
Q

sprecher and hendrick counter argument

A
  • however, methodological issues occur with the use of correlational studies as casual conclusions cannot be made
  • correlational studies can never establish ‘cause and effect’ relationships between 2 variables cause they may also be affected by third variable problems
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48
Q

laurenceau

A
  • conducted research in support of the predictions made by social penetration theory
  • used a method that involved writing daily diary entries.
  • they found that self disclosure in a partner were linked to higher levels of intimacy in long term married couples.
  • the reverse was also true: less intimate couples self disclosed less often
  • this suggests the breadth and depth of self disclosure is strongly predictive of the intimacy and quality of romantic relationships which again supports the validity od the social penetration theory as an indicator of relationship quality
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49
Q

hass and stafford

A
  • investigates self-disclosure in homosexual relationships
  • found that 57% gay men and women said that open and honest self-disclosure was the main way they maintained their relationship. this finding demonstrates the value of psychological insight
  • this highlights the importance of self disclosure and suggests that the theory can be used to support people having relationships problems
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50
Q

counter argument to hass and stafford

A
  • however, we cannot assume that the relationship is casual therefore, this suggests that such research provides limited support for the theory
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51
Q

tang et al

A
  • refutes prediction that increasing breadth and depth of self disclosure will lead to a more satisfying romantic relationship
  • reviewed research regarding sexual self-disclosure and concluded that men/women in USA disclose significantly more than men/women in China (collectivist vs individualist cultures)
  • both levels of self disclosure are linked to relationship satisfaction to those cultures
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52
Q

evaluation of tang et al

A
  • limitation to social penetration theory as this explanation of romantic relationships isn’t generalisable to other cultures
  • importance of self disclosure may vary for different cultures
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53
Q

halo effect

A

one feature (e.g physical attractiveness) disproportionately affects how we judge others on other attributes

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54
Q

the matching hypothesis

A
  • we don’t select the most physically attractive partner, but the one who best ‘matches’ us in terms of our own desirability
  • the more socially desirable a person is, the more desirable they expect their partner to be
  • couples who are matched in terms of social desirability are more likely to be in a happy relationship than couples who are mismatched
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55
Q

importance of physical attractiveness

A
  • if a person is physically attractive, they are thought to have more other positive attributes as well ,such as being socially skilled and possibly more sexually available
56
Q

study to support matching hypothesis

A

shackleford and larson 1997:
- found that people with symmetrical faces are more attractive as they have an honest set genetic fitness (hard to fake facial symmetry)
- people also attracted to baby face features as they trigger an instinct of protection and caring

57
Q

study to support matching hypothesis

A

palmer and peterson
- found that physically attractive people were more rated as politically knowledgeable and competent than unattractive people
- has obvious implications for political process

58
Q

research to support the matching hypothesis

A

computer dance study (walster 1966)
- 72 students bought welcome week tickets for a computer dance
- when they bought the tickets, they were told that the info they give about themselves would be fed into a computer to give them their ‘ideal match’ for the date
- they were actually randomly assigned to a partner
- while students were giving their data, an unseen observer marked them on attractiveness
- 2 hours later: they were asked how much they liked their partner
- those who were physically attractive, were asked out the most by men, regardless of how attractive they were
- 6 months later, ptps asked if they had seen their date again.
- found that ptps were more likely to have dated if they were of a similar attractiveness

59
Q

evaluation of research to support matching hypothesis

A
  • high ecological validity: naturalistic setting
  • mixed results: decreases validity of study?
  • ethical issues: deception and lack of informed consent to being ranked based on attractiveness
  • not gender specific: aronson et al claimed that when using homosexual couples to investigate the matching hypothesis, physical attractiveness was still a priority; shows universality of matching hypothesis
  • individual differences: towhey conducted an experiment where he gave participants photos of strangers and some biographical information about them.
  • the ptps were then asked to rate how much they liked the people based on the photographs.
  • found that physical attractiveness was more important for participants who displayed sexual attitudes.
  • evidence suggests that depending on the individual, physical appearance may not be a significant factor in attractiveness and can be moderated by other factors which challenges the Matching Hypothesis as it suggests that it is the main factor.
60
Q

who was the filter theory constructed by

A
  • kerckhoff and davis 1962
61
Q

3 main filters according to filter theory

A
  • social demographic
  • similarity in attitudes
  • complementarity
62
Q

study conducted by kerckhoff and davis about filter theory

A
  • studied student couples (mainly short-term relationships fewer than 18 months)
  • discovered several important criteria people use to choose a partner
  • they call these criteria ‘filters’ as they help filter down people until we choose the right one
63
Q

social demographic

A
  • first level of filtering
  • characteristics = physical proximity, level of education, social class, religion etc
  • important factors: people more likely to build relationships with people geographically close - gives greater chance to find out more about each other
  • similarities in religion etc, give them more reassurance that relationship will move forward
64
Q

similarity in attitudes

A
  • people tend to view others as attractive ig they share the same core values and beliefs e.g family, views on career etc
  • Byrne noted that similarity of attitudes is especially important in early stages of relationships (couples who have been together for <18 months). H said that similarity causes attraction (law of attraction)
  • presence of similarities is discovered through self-disclosure, which leads to greater feelings of intimacy in a couple
  • absence of similarities can cause the relationship rarely developed beyond first few dates
65
Q

complementarity

A
  • if similarities are crucial at the early stages of relationships, it seems that for long-term couples, complementarity plays a much more important role
  • complementarity refers to each of the partners having some traits that the other partner lacks, which helps each other to fulfil their needs
66
Q

main study to support filter theory

A

kerckhoff and davis 1962:
- used 94 students in a relationship for less than 18 months (short term) with those in a relationship for over 18 months (long term)
- using self report questionnaires, they looked at shared values and attitudes and the need for complementarity
- 7 months later, couples asked how close they felt to each other compared to the start.
- similarity in attitudes was most important for up to 18 months
- long term, complementarity was the most important
- this shows the importance and use of filter theory in everyday life

67
Q

issue with main study to support filter theory

A

self reports:
- self reports are prone to social desirability bias and they may not have a valid/accurate perception of themselves so the responses they give is not very reliable

68
Q

more studies to support filter theory

A
  • winch 1957
  • gruber baldini et al
69
Q

winch 1957 study

A
  • similarity in attitudes and personality traits were most important at the beginning of relationships
  • complementarity of needs had more of an impact on long term relationships than short term
70
Q

gruber baldini et al

A
  • conducted a longitudinal study of couples aged 21
  • having a similar education level and age made them more likely to stay together
  • shows the importance of socio demographic factors such as age and location
71
Q

study to refute filter theory

A

levenger 1974:
- replicated kerckhoff and davis’ study and found no relationship between length + performance of couple’s relationships and influence of filter theory’s variables
- could be due to questionnaire in original study; the social values were different in levenger’s time than kerckhoff and davis’
- therefore filter theory lacks temporal validity

72
Q

issues and debates evaluation of filter theory

A
  • issue of imposed etic: filter theory applies the results found in individualistic cultures to collectivist cultures where relationships may be arranged and have less freedom to choose. therefore there is a culture bias
  • reductionist; limits explanation to a range of real life relationships e.g long distance relationships (where there is a lack of proximity) or abuse relationships (where they lack complementarity of needs)
  • this suggests that a holistic approach for studying romantic relationships may be better suited to explaining complexity of relationship maintenance
73
Q

who developed the social exchange theory

A
  • thibaut and kelley 1959
74
Q

what is the social exchange theory

A
  • economic theory of romantic relationships
  • uses concepts from economics and from operant conditioning
  • we attempt to maximise our rewards and minimise our costs
75
Q

how do we measure profit in romantic relationships

A

comparison level (CL):
- amount of rewards you believe you deserve to get.
- developed by comparison to previous relationships
- if current relationship compares favorably , we are inclined to stay

comparison level of alternatives (CLalt):
- this is about being concerned about relationships that we could be in
- if alternative relationships are favourable, we may end relationships

76
Q

study to support social exchange theory

A

hatfield:
- looked at people who felt that they were over/under benefitting in their relationships
- those who were under benefitting reported to feel angry and deprived whilst those over benefitting felt guilty and uncomfortable
- this supports SET as it shows that regardless of whether you were under benefitting or over benefitting in a relationship; neither wished to maintain the relationship if it was unequal

77
Q

study to refute social exchange theory

A

clark and mills
argyle
miller

78
Q

clark and mills

A
  • identified 2 different types of couples (communal and exchange)
  • in the communal couple, they have positive regard for each other and believe over time each will receive costs and benefits (don’t keep count)
  • the exchange couple are more about here and now.
  • do involve social exchange (as SET predicts)
  • SET claims reciprocal activities are monitored
  • clear that SET based on faulty assumptions and therefore, can’t account for majority of romantic relationships
79
Q

argyle

A

argues that we aren’t constantly monitory profit of a relationship
- also argues that we don’t pay attention to it until after we start to feel dissatisfied
- suggest that SET doesn’t explain cause of breakdown, but a later symptom and also doesn’t consider attractive alternatives until we’re dissatisfied

80
Q

miller - SET

A
  • people who rated themselves as in a highly committed relationship spent less time looking at images of attractive people
  • this is a good predictor of relationships continuing 2 months later
  • therefore people in committed relationships ignore even most attractive alternatives and SET cant account for direction or causation in this outcome
81
Q

another idea to refute social exchange theory

A
  • some people value equity over benefits/its balance of rewards and costs
  • means that SET is a limited explanation which can’t account for a significant proportion of research findings on relationships
82
Q

evaluation of SET

A
  • culture bias: (ethnocentric) moghaddam 1993 also found that US students preferred equity whilst European students preferred equality which suggest the theory only reflects values of US society; further undermining its universality across cultures; based on dynamics of primarily western couples and then generalised to other cultures (imposed etic)
  • portrays people as selfish and calculating; ignores altruism and meeting needs
  • reductionist to argue that exchange is the only motivating factor
  • deterministic; according to SET, if costs outweigh rewards, the person will want to opt out of the relationship. however, there are many cases where people stay in high-cost relationships without feeling dissatisfied. so therefore, the predictive validity of social exchange theory is very limited
  • can explain why people stay in abusive relationships; real life applications; rusbult and martx - women who were abused were more likely to return to abusive partners as they lacked better alternatives. SET explains this as remaining profits exceed costs. presents practical applications as support for abuse victims (e.g improve employment prospects and a home) can allow victims to leave abusive relationships
  • but doesn’t explain why people leave with no alternative.
  • clarification needed of comparison level; very vague
  • may be applicable to other types of relationships e.g friendships
83
Q

equity theory

A
  • developed in response to a significant criticism of SET - fails to recognise importance of equity in relationships
84
Q

what did walster et al say about filter theory

A
  • what matters most is that levels of profit is approximately the same
  • either under benefitting or over benefitting can cause dissatisfaction
85
Q

issue with equity

A
  • perception of equity changes over time (new couple vs married couple) but if equity isn’t achieved, it can lead to dissatisfaction
  • partner’s way of dealing with equity also changes over time; what seems unfair in the beginning may become a norm as the relationship progresses
86
Q

studies to support equity theory

A
  • stafford and canary
  • utne
  • van yperen and buunk
87
Q

stafford and canary study

A
  • studied over 200 married couples who completed questionnaires on equity and satisfaction.
  • he found that partners who over benefitted and were in a fair relationship were most satisfied
  • those who were under benefitted were the least satisfied
  • this study has real life applications as it suggests the equity theory can be used in couples therapy to help couples
88
Q

utne 1984

A
  • used self report scales to measure equity and satisfaction in recently married couples (118 participants)
  • partners who rated relationship as equitable were more satisfied with them
  • this study increases the validity of the equity theory as an explanation for romantic relationships
  • however, self report studies are prone to social desirability bias and due to the contents being sensitive (‘how satisfied are you in your relationship’), people won’t be truthful when answering which will thus lead to a lack of validity
89
Q

van yperen and buunk

A
  • conducted a longitudinal study of 259 participants
  • 84% married and 16% co-habiting
  • score of equity was obtained using hatfield’s global measurement of satisfaction
  • 65% of men felt that their relationship was equitable
  • 25% men felt they were over benefitted
  • 25% of women felt under benefitted
  • found that dissatisfaction in inequitable relationships increased with time, not the other way around.
90
Q

studies to refute equity theory

A
  • aumer-ryan et al
  • kahn et al
  • sprecher
91
Q

aumer-ryan et al

A
  • found that concept of equity is more valued in western cultures than non-western cultures
  • both men and women from collectivist cultures claimed to be most satisfied when they were over benefitting; and not when it was fair
  • suggests that the equity theory’s claims that it’s universal is unwarranted
  • the theory is limited as it can’t explain culture differences
92
Q

kahn et al 1980

A
  • focused on gender differences
  • found that men are more likely to focus on the norm of equity in relationships
  • women are more likely to focus on the norm of equality; should get the same benefits no matter how much they put into the relationship
  • shows that the equity theory cannot account for individual gender differences and assumes equity is valued the same in both genders
93
Q

sprecher

A
  • found that women tend to be more disturbed when under benefitting and feel more guilt when over benefitting
  • suggests that the equity theory is not nomothetic
94
Q

what is rusbult’s investment theory

A
  • theory that rusbult created as he was interested in studying the factors that contributed to a committed relationship versus relationship breakdown
95
Q

what 3 concepts influence commitment

A
  • satisfaction
  • quality of alternatives
  • investment
96
Q

satisfaction - rusbult’s investment theory

A
  • rewards and costs affect experiences in a relationship
  • more rewards = more satisfaction
  • influenced by meeting needs of an individual
97
Q

quality of alternatives - rusbult’s investment theory

A
  • if attractive alternatives are available, they may leave their relationship
  • if there are no alternatives, they may maintain the relationship
  • sometimes having no relationship is a better alternative than being in an unsatisfactory one
98
Q

investment - rusbult’s investment theory

A
  • rusbult realised that CL and CLalt isn’t enough to explain commitment cause if it was, the relationship would end as soon as the costs outweigh rewards
  • therefore, investment was introduced which links anything a person puts into a relationship, which will be lost if they end the relationship
99
Q

2 types of investments

A

intrinsic investment: resources put directly into a relationship
extrinsic investment: resources gathered through relationship

100
Q

what did rusbult discover about the importance of investment

A

he found that when people were deciding whether to end a relationship, not only did they weigh up the rewards and the costs of the relationship and possible alternatives available to them, but they also considered how much they had invested in the relationship

101
Q

studies to support rusbult’s investment model

A

le and agnew
rhahgan and axsom
jerstad
impett, beals and pepiau

102
Q

le and agnew 2003

A
  • conducted a meta analysis of 52 studies (11,000 ptps) and discovered that satisfaction, CL/CL alt, and investment, greatly contributed to commitment and that commitment was a defining feature of long lasting relationships
  • meta analyses provide strong evidence because they use a large sample which provides good population validity; supports model’s validity
103
Q

rhahgan and axsom

A

studied group of women and found that all 3 factors identified by rusbult, featured in participants decision to study with their partner - supports model
- whilst its only a woman sample, it still lends credibility to all aspects of the model

104
Q

jerstad 2005

A
  • found that investments (time and effort) were the most important predictor of whether to stay with an abusive partner
  • useful applications as it can lead to greater understanding and support for women in refugues and abusive relationships
105
Q

impett, beals and pepiau

A
  • conducted longitudinal study
  • used a large sample of married couples and studied them over an 18 month period
  • found that stability of relationships correlates with commitment shown by partners
  • however correlation does not equal causation. more commitment = more investment?
  • longitudinal study = more accurate and valid representation of couples
106
Q

overall strength of rusbult’s investment model

A
  • much research relies on self reports which is an appropriate method because it isn’t the objective reality of factors e.g investment size doesn’t actually matter to everyone as it is each individual’s perception of these factors that matter
  • self reports = social desirability bias but they’re the most valid and ethical way to collect data
  • measures perception of relationships over roles
107
Q

5 stages of duck’s model

A
  • intra-psychic phase
  • dyadic phase
  • social phase
  • grave dressing phase
  • resurrection phase
108
Q

intra-psychic phase

A
  • focuses on cognitive processes + reasons for satisfaction + partners’ short comings and weighing up of pros and cons of relationship
  • couple aren’‘t talking to each other
109
Q

dyadic phase

A
  • focuses on interpersonal processes
  • there is confrontation involving discussing relationships + dissatisfaction
  • couple argue and complain a lot
110
Q

social phase

A
  • focuses on wider processes involving social relations
  • breakup = more public + partner seeks support and try forge packs
  • family and friends become involved and couple finds out things they didn’t know about each other
111
Q

grave dressing phase

A
  • focuses on aftermath
  • relationship buried and breakdown spun into favourable story for public consumption
  • also involves creating a personal story
  • spend lots of time criticising each other to friends
112
Q

resurrection phase

A
  • more beyond pain and distress and experience personal growth
  • added this stage after being told it was too simplistic
113
Q

who added the resurrection phase and what does this suggest

A
  • rollie and duck 2006
  • suggest that at this stage, people are beyond the pain and distress associated with ending the relationship and experience personal growth
114
Q

evaluation of duck’s 5 phase model

A
  • real life applications: this model can be used in counselling and can help couples repair the relationship through the first two stages.
  • addresses cognitive as well as behavioural factors e.g intrapsychic phase
  • identifies that breakdown is not just a sudden step but a process; again can be used in counselling
  • it is descriptive rather than explanatory
  • however, suggests that all relationships go through the same stages of breakdown
  • there may be gender differences; akert 1998 found that women have more desire to stay friends whereas men want to cut their losses and move on
  • culture bias (moghaddam 1993); while western individualistic cultures generally have voluntary relationships, in many collectivistic cultures, marriages may be arranged or there may be more pressure to stay together or involvement from wider family
115
Q

2 models/theories that explain self disclosure in virtual relationships

A
  • hyperpersonal model
  • reduced cues theory
116
Q

hyperpersonal model

A
  • walther 1996
  • greater SD in virtual relationships than face to face
  • more time to edit and present in positive light (selective self representation)
  • virtual relationships can develop very quickly as SD happens earlier so they become more intense
  • can also end quicker cause underlying trust and knowledge of other person is lacking (boom and bust theory)
117
Q

boom and bust

A
  • cooper and sportolari
  • anonymity of virtual relationship made them self disclose earlier on than face to face, naming relationship more intense and exciting (boom)
  • however, because necessary trust foundation hasn’t been established, intensity of relationship is hard to maintain; leading to breakup (bust)
  • shows importance of breadth and depth
118
Q

reduced cues theory

A
  • sproull and kiesler
  • cues e.g physical appearance, are lacking in virtual communications, so they lack facial expressions
  • however, acrostics e.g LOL and emojis are used as effective substitutes for facial expressions
  • lack of facial expressions can lead to deindividuation (person losing their identity) and acting in a way that they wouldn’t normally
  • often virtual relationships involve aggressive and blunt communication which leads to reluctance to self disclose
119
Q

evaluation of hyperpersonal model

A
  • predicta that people are motivated to self disclose in CMC relationships in ways that are sometimes ‘hyperhonest’ or ‘hyperdishonest’
  • whitty and joinson summarise a wealth of evidence that this is the case e.g questions asked in online discussions tend to be very direct, probing and intimate. different to face to face discussions; responses also likely to be different
  • findings support a central assertion of the model; that the way we disclose in CMC relationships is designed to present ourselves in an exaggeratedly positive light which aids relationship formation
  • self disclosure online (breadth and depth) depends on the type of CMC used. any theory that approaches CMC as a single concept neglects its variety and therefore is unlikely to be fully valid explanation
120
Q

evaluation of reduced cues theory

A
  • success of online communication is difficult for the reduced cues theory to explain cause it shows that CMC interactions can be just as person as those conducted face to face and that it’s possible to express emotional states in virtual relationships
  • e.g taking time to reply to a social network status update is often interpreted as a more intimate act rather than an immediate response
121
Q

effects of absence of gating on virtual relationships

A

absence of gating = removal of factors that normally act as a barrier to interaction and relationship formation e.g level of physical attractiveness
- absence of gating means that people can establish virtual identities they couldn’t create face to face e.g introvert can be extrovert

122
Q

study to support effect of absence of gating

A
  • bargh et al
  • gates can be remained hidden during a CMC relationship and allows self disclosure and intimacy to develop, avoiding distractions that might occur during face to face
  • then the gate may be removed but cause of self disclosure, it doesn’t matter as much now because they’ve formed a bond
123
Q

evaluation of absence of gating

A
  • research into virtual relationship is based on experience of mainly western, technology developed cultures
  • internet technology is not readily available in some countries so the conclusion about the development and effects of virtual communication of relationships cannot be applied to them and self disclosure and attitudes to self disclosure differ between cultures
124
Q

mckenna and bargh; effect of absence of gating on virtual relationships

A
  • looked at CMC use by lonely and socially anxious people
  • found that such people were able to express their true selves more than in face to face situations
  • of the romantic relationships that initially formed online, 70% survived more than 2 years
  • higher proportion than relationships formed in offline world
125
Q

levels of parasocial relationships

A
  • entertainment social
  • intense personal
  • borderline pathological
126
Q

entertainment social level

A

celebs viewed as sources of entertainment and fuel for social interactions
- e.g friends with more than as a passing interest in soap operas

127
Q

intense personal level

A
  • intermediate level
  • reflects a greater personal involvement in parasocial relationships with a celeb e.g obsessive thoughts and intense feelings about someone, maybe even consider them your soulmate
128
Q

borderline pathological

A

strongest level of celeb worship, including uncontrollable fantasies and extreme behaviour + spending lots of money on a related object

129
Q

study to support levels of parasocial relationships

A
  • maltby et al; used eyesenck personality questionnaire to assess the relationship between parasocial relationship level and personality
    made the link that:
  • entertainment social = extraversion
  • intense personal = neuroticism
  • borderline pathological = psychoticism
130
Q

absorption addiction model

A

2 stages:
- absorption; seeking fulfilment in celebrity worship motivates the individual to focus their attention as far as possible on the celebrity, to become pre-occupied with their existence + identify with them
- addiction; individual needs to sustain their commitment to the relationship by feeling stronger and closer involvement with the celebrity. may lead to more extreme behaviours and delusional thinking e.g stalking because you believe that they want to reciprocate feelings

131
Q

evaluation of absorption addiction model

A
  • maltby looked at females 14-16 who had a parasocial relationship with a female whos body shape they admired. found correlation between poor body image and parasocial relationships. could be precursor to development of anorexia
  • most research on parasocial relationships use self report methods to collect data e.g questionnaires. subject to number of effects that can bias the findings e.g social desirability bias
  • most studies also use correlational analysis. strong correlation between celeb worship and body image; correlational research has issue with cause and effect
  • as the absorption addiction model is based on such studies, there remains questions about its validity as an explanation for parasocial relationships.
  • absorption addiction model criticised for being a better descriptor of parasocial relationships than an explanation. e.g model capable of describing characteristics of people who are most absorbed by and addicted to a celebrity. unlike attachment theory, it doesn’t explain how characteristics develop so there is a lack of practical application as it can’t be used to identify risk factors in individuals
132
Q

attachment theory explanation

A

certain attachment types in individuals are more likely to form a parasocial relationship than others

133
Q

insecure resistant attachment; parasocial relationships

A
  • more likely to form a parasocial relationship
  • more likely to fear rejection from an adult relationship and find these difficult due to their clingy and jealous nature.
134
Q

insecure-avoidant attachment; parasocial relationships

A
  • avoids any relationship, even parasocial relationship
135
Q

research to support attachment theory explanation

A
  • cole and leets; found that adolescents with insecure resistant attachments were more likely to form parasocial relationships with TV media personalities than those with secure and insecure avoidant attachments; supporting the idea that insecure resistant attachments are more attracted to parasocial relationships
  • mccutcheon et al; measured attraction to celebrities finding that adults with insecure attachment types had a positive attitude towards obsessive behaviours and stalking + also that stalking behaviour related to childhood attachment patterns
  • keinien et al; found that 63% of stalkers experiences a loss of primary caregivers during childhood, usually due to parental separation. whilst more than 50% reported childhood abuse by primary caregivers. supports idea that disturbed attachment patterns relate to extreme forms of parasocial relationships
136
Q

study to refute attachment theory explanation

A
  • found no relationship between childhood attachment patterns and mild forms of celebrity worship, suggesting that it is only the more intense forms of parasocial relationships that relate to attachment types.

aqa psych (12 decks)

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