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relationships Flashcards

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1
Q

evolutionary hypothesis basics

A
  • men look for women who are likely to reproduce successfully (young and therefore fertile + physically attractive)
  • women are looking for successful men who can provide for offspring (older + successful + physically strong etc)
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2
Q

anisogamy

A

form of sexual reproduction that involves union or fusion of 2 gametes that differ in size and form

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3
Q

types of sexual selection

A

intersexual
intrasexual

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4
Q

intersexual selection

A
  • between the sex
  • females choose the males
  • females have less reproductive potential and so it is important that they make the right decision
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5
Q

intrasexual selection

A
  • within the same sex
  • males compete with each other to be chosen by females - by impressing or charming them
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6
Q

why did trivers propose the parental investment theory

A
  • males can produce lots of sperm for much of their life but females make a greater investment in offspring
  • because of this females choose males that are able to and/or willing to invest in their offspring. these males achieve a higher reproductive success
  • as a result of these differences trivers proposed the parental investment theory: women are choosier than men as they are investing more in their offspring
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7
Q

cross cultural research into partner preferences

A

Buss 1989:
- studied partner preferences in 33 different countries
- 10,000 men and women agd 16-28 were asked about their preferences
- in all cultures her found that men valued physical attractiveness more than women and valued women younger than themselves. women valued financial success and ambition more.
- this research reflect sex differences due to anisogamy and supports predictions about partner preferences from sexual selection theory.

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8
Q

evaluation of cross cultural research into partner preferences

A
  • whilst Buss managed to represent a wide diversity of cultural groups, his sampling techniques varied from country to country.
  • this problem may decrease the validity of the research as the lack of consistency in sampling may lead to confounding variables.
  • in addition, as the data was collected through self reporting, participants may not be accurate in perceptions of their own behaviour and may have displayed demand characteristics in order to provide researchers with answers they believe they would want.
  • this study also do not explain why certain individuals deviate from the results displayed e.g why do some men have a preference for older women.
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9
Q

why is cross cultural research so important in evolutionary psychology

A
  • if similar findings, patterns or trends are found in different areas of the world, it suggests a universality in nature i.e being innate and natural to all humans - supporting evolutionary theory
  • if there are differences in behaviour from one place to another, it supports the influence of culture on behaviour, challenging evolutionary theory
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10
Q

sexual selection as proposed by charles darwin

A
  • if a male characteristic enhances reproductive success, it becomes established as a preference among females so males are under pressure to improve on that characteristic
  • males with the trait are preferred and the trait is passed on
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11
Q

evidence to refute darwin’s sexual selection ‘theory’

A

handicap hypothesis - zahavi
- may be true that certain characteristics seem maladaptive but the very fact that their owners present them are still alive and healthy indicates great survival skills
- they’ve overcome a potential handicap (in terms of survival) and so are a ‘good catch’. these exaggerated features/characteristics are a type of ‘fitness indicator’

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12
Q

fitness indicator definition

A
  • anything which suggests presence of good genes, survival skills or parenting potential
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13
Q

fitness indicator issue

A
  • fitness indicators can be faxed
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14
Q

example of honest indicator in humans

A
  • facial symmetry
  • psychologically difficult to fake.
  • waist-to-hip ratio in famles is another
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15
Q

consequences of sexual selection

A
  • sexual dimorphism
  • facial characteristics
  • body shape
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16
Q

sexual dimorphism as a consequence of sexual selection

A
  • physical differences between the sexes
  • human males are generally larger as it is suggested humans evolved in a polygynous mating system with more intense sexual competition between males than females
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17
Q

facial characteristics as a consequence of sexual selection

A
  • research shows that females with neotenous features are universally thought of as more attractive
  • research has shown that males with strong jaws and large noses are more attractive (thornhill and gangestad)
  • bruce and young found a preference for symmetrical faces
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18
Q

body shape as a consequence of sexual selection

A
  • singh: found a preference for waist to hip ratio of 0:7. this produces an hour-glass body shape
  • preference persists despite a figure being curvier or slimmer
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19
Q

evidence to support partner preferences

A

Lonely Hearts:
- Dunbar 1995 used 9– personal ads from north American newspapers
- 42% of men wanted a younger partner
- 25% of women wanted a younger partner
- 44% of men sought a physically attractive woman
- 22% of women sought a physically attractive man

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20
Q

mating strategies

A

monogamy
polygyny
polyandry
promiscuity

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21
Q

monogamy

A

mates with one partner

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22
Q

polygyny

A

one man with multiple women

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23
Q

polyandry

A

one women with multiple men

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24
Q

promiscuity

A

both partners with multiple partners

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25
Q

study to support differences in reproductive behaviour

A
  • men have more of a tendency to engage in casual sex
    clark and hatfield :
  • strangers of the opposite sex were approached and offered to either go out that night, go back to their house or to have sex with them
  • results: 50% of men and women agreed to first
  • 69% of men agreed to second but only 6% of women agreed
  • 0% women agreed by 75% of men agreed to C
  • These results support the theories made about sexual selection (that women are more choosy with their partners as they want men that are willing to invest in their offspring).
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26
Q

evaluation of study to support differences in reproductive behaviour

A
  • norms of sexual behaviour are changing rapidly and evolutionary theories cannot account for these changes
  • Bereckej et al argue that women’s participation in the labour market has had consequences for mating preferences which may no longer be resource oriented
  • chang compared partner preferences over 25 years and found that some had changed but others remained the same, corresponding with huge social changes in that time
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27
Q

evidence to support mating strategies

A
  • norman and kendrick
  • investigated what the desirable traits were for men and women seeking a one night stand
    -if you were to have a one night stand, which characteristics would be more important: kindness, physical attractiveness, vitality, generosity, humour
  • they found that both men and women rated physical attractiveness the most
  • they concluded that men chose this because it indicates fertility and women choose it because it indicates good genes for their offspring
28
Q

parental investment theory

A
  • trivers proposes that differences between males and females exist because they can make different amounts of investment in their offspring
    males:
  • males have a large amount of sperm and remain fertile
  • best way to increase his reproductive success is to have many matings with multiple partners
    females:
  • human females invest much more in each offspring
  • eggs only produced once a month
  • pre and post natal investment is large
  • best strategy is to ensure survival of each offspring
29
Q

study to support idea of sexual jealousy

A
  • buss asked male and female students to imagine their current partner:
    a. having sex with someone else
    b. in love with someone else
  • men more distressed by a
  • women more distressed by b
30
Q

evaluation of parental investment theory

A
  • helps understand mate preferences: women seek men with good genes and who shows commitment to help raise the offspring: explained by buss’ findings (men prefer younger women because they’re fertile). also explains why men engage in short term matings and women are more reluctant
  • explains difference in sexual jealousy
  • doesn’t explain why some women have one night stands and some men are unfaithful
  • doesn’t explain the existence of homosexual and other relationships which are non-reproductive
31
Q

content analysis

A
  • type of observational research
  • essentially involves scanning material in order to identify whether certain specified characteristics are present e.g a word, phrase, visual feature etc
  • used to make qualitative data into quantitative
32
Q

how to conduct a content analysis

A
  • read through content
  • identify/ devise important categories/ themes
  • example of possible categories/themes
  • work through content repeatedly
  • count/ tally number of occurnces
33
Q

pros of self disclosure

A
  • displays a level of trust
  • forms a bond
34
Q

cons of self disclosure

A
  • might put them off/ scare them off
35
Q

social penetration theory

A
  • altman and taylor
  • says that self-disclosure is the gradual process of revealing your inner self to someone else
  • in romantic relationships, we give away our deepest thoughts or feelings in a reciprocal exchange
  • by revealing personal information we are displaying trust
  • for other relationship to go further, the other person must also reveal sensitive info, thereby penetrating more deeply into each other’s lives
36
Q

breadth and depth

A
  • in the early stages of a relationship, if we reveal too much too soon, we risk putting our relationship in jeopardy before it even develops
  • as the relationship develops, self disclosure becomes deeper and encompasses a wider range of topics, especially concerning those things that matter to us
37
Q

reciprocity of self disclosure

A
  • reis and shaver asset that breadth and depth are not sufficient for a relationship to develop. there must be a reciprocal element to disclosure
  • once you’ve disclosed something that reveals your true self, hopefully your partner will respond in a way that is rewarding.
  • this leads to a balance of self disclosure between both partners, deepening the relationship
38
Q

factors involved in self disclosure

A
  • appropriateness of disclosure
  • attributions for the disclosure
  • gender differences
  • contents of disclosure
39
Q

how does appropriateness affect self disclosure

A
  • sometimes self disclosure is inappropriate
  • is what is being said going against social norms?
  • those who contravene social norms will be seen as maladjusted and lacking in social skills
  • more attractive people will be more sensitive to norms
40
Q

how do attributions for disclosure affect self disclosure

A
  • less attraction occurs if an individual is seen as the kind of person who discloses personal information to everyone, or if the situation is appropriate
  • more attraction occurs if we believe an individual sees us as someone they specifically want to disclose intimate info0 to
41
Q

how do gender differences affect self-disclosure

A
  • women are generally seen as better communicators of and more interested in intimate info
  • males may not be used to this and so feel threatened by females self-disclosing intimate details
  • alternatively, self-disclosure by a male may be seen as very rewarding by a female as it indicates he especially wants to disclose personal info to her
42
Q

how does content of disclosure affect self disclosure

A
  • generally intimate disclosure are seen favourably
  • however, disclosure of highly intimate info may be seen as inappropriate and a violation of social norms especially if the relationship is in its early stages
  • could decrease attraction as recipient of info may feel threatened and unsure of how to respond
43
Q

studies to support self disclosure

A
  • collins and miller
  • sprecher and hendrick
  • laurenceau
  • hass and stafford
  • tang et al
44
Q

collins and miller study

A
  • conducted a meta analysis to support idea of positive correlation between self-disclosure and romantic attraction
  • found that people who engage in intimate disclosures tend to be more liked than people who disclose at lower levels
  • therefore a link can be observed between self-disclosure and liking; both of which are key in the development and maintenance of relationships
  • these links can be drawn from the results showing that individuals are more attracted to people are willing to disclose and share personal info
45
Q

collins and miller counter argument

A
  • however, research can rarely distinguish between friendships, companionship or romantic relationships, making it difficult to assess the role that self disclosure has on romantic relationships.
  • self disclosure may just link to intimate relationships and therefore it is a partial explanation
46
Q

sprecher and hendrick

A
  • concept of self disclosure has been investigated in numerous studies e.g sprecher and hendrick
  • they studied heterosexual dating couples and found strong positive correlations between several measures of relationship satisfaction and self-disclosure
  • this study supports the idea that self disclosure is a key component of committed romantic relationships
47
Q

sprecher and hendrick counter argument

A
  • however, methodological issues occur with the use of correlational studies as casual conclusions cannot be made
  • correlational studies can never establish ‘cause and effect’ relationships between 2 variables cause they may also be affected by third variable problems
48
Q

laurenceau

A
  • conducted research in support of the predictions made by social penetration theory
  • used a method that involved writing daily diary entries.
  • they found that self disclosure in a partner were linked to higher levels of intimacy in long term married couples.
  • the reverse was also true: less intimate couples self disclosed less often
  • this suggests the breadth and depth of self disclosure is strongly predictive of the intimacy and quality of romantic relationships which again supports the validity od the social penetration theory as an indicator of relationship quality
49
Q

hass and stafford

A
  • investigates self-disclosure in homosexual relationships
  • found that 57% gay men and women said that open and honest self-disclosure was the main way they maintained their relationship. this finding demonstrates the value of psychological insight
  • this highlights the importance of self disclosure and suggests that the theory can be used to support people having relationships problems
50
Q

counter argument to hass and stafford

A
  • however, we cannot assume that the relationship is casual therefore, this suggests that such research provides limited support for the theory
51
Q

tang et al

A
  • refutes prediction that increasing breadth and depth of self disclosure will lead to a more satisfying romantic relationship
  • reviewed research regarding sexual self-disclosure and concluded that men/women in USA disclose significantly more than men/women in China (collectivist vs individualist cultures)
  • both levels of self disclosure are linked to relationship satisfaction to those cultures
52
Q

evaluation of tang et al

A
  • limitation to social penetration theory as this explanation of romantic relationships isn’t generalisable to other cultures
  • importance of self disclosure may vary for different cultures
53
Q

halo effect

A

one feature (e.g physical attractiveness) disproportionately affects how we judge others on other attributes

54
Q

the matching hypothesis

A
  • we don’t select the most physically attractive partner, but the one who best ‘matches’ us in terms of our own desirability
  • the more socially desirable a person is, the more desirable they expect their partner to be
  • couples who are matched in terms of social desirability are more likely to be in a happy relationship than couples who are mismatched
55
Q

importance of physical attractiveness

A
  • if a person is physically attractive, they are thought to have more other positive attributes as well ,such as being socially skilled and possibly more sexually available
56
Q

study to support matching hypothesis

A

shackleford and larson 1997:
- found that people with symmetrical faces are more attractive as they have an honest set genetic fitness (hard to fake facial symmetry)
- people also attracted to baby face features as they trigger an instinct of protection and caring

57
Q

study to support matching hypothesis

A

palmer and peterson
- found that physically attractive people were more rated as politically knowledgeable and competent than unattractive people
- has obvious implications for political process

58
Q

research to support the matching hypothesis

A

computer dance study (walster 1966)
- 72 students bought welcome week tickets for a computer dance
- when they bought the tickets, they were told that the info they give about themselves would be fed into a computer to give them their ‘ideal match’ for the date
- they were actually randomly assigned to a partner
- while students were giving their data, an unseen observer marked them on attractiveness
- 2 hours later: they were asked how much they liked their partner
- those who were physically attractive, were asked out the most by men, regardless of how attractive they were
- 6 months later, ptps asked if they had seen their date again.
- found that ptps were more likely to have dated if they were of a similar attractiveness

59
Q

evaluation of research to support matching hypothesis

A
  • high ecological validity: naturalistic setting
  • mixed results: decreases validity of study?
  • ethical issues: deception and lack of informed consent to being ranked based on attractiveness
  • not gender specific: aronson et al claimed that when using homosexual couples to investigate the matching hypothesis, physical attractiveness was still a priority; shows universality of matching hypothesis
  • individual differences: towhey conducted an experiment where he gave participants photos of strangers and some biographical information about them.
  • the ptps were then asked to rate how much they liked the people based on the photographs.
  • found that physical attractiveness was more important for participants who displayed sexual attitudes.
  • evidence suggests that depending on the individual, physical appearance may not be a significant factor in attractiveness and can be moderated by other factors which challenges the Matching Hypothesis as it suggests that it is the main factor.
60
Q

who was the filter theory constructed by

A
  • kerckhoff and davis 1962
61
Q

3 main filters according to filter theory

A
  • social demographic
  • similarity in attitudes
  • complementarity
62
Q

study conducted by kerckhoff and davis about filter theory

A
  • studied student couples (mainly short-term relationships fewer than 18 months)
  • discovered several important criteria people use to choose a partner
  • they call these criteria ‘filters’ as they help filter down people until we choose the right one
63
Q

social demographic

A
  • first level of filtering
  • characteristics = physical proximity, level of education, social class, religion etc
  • important factors: people more likely to build relationships with people geographically close - gives greater chance to find out more about each other
  • similarities in religion etc, give them more reassurance that relationship will move forward
64
Q

similarity in attitudes

A
  • people tend to view others as attractive ig they share the same core values and beliefs e.g family, views on career etc
  • Byrne noted that similarity of attitudes is especially important in early stages of relationships (couples who have been together for <18 months). H said that similarity causes attraction (law of attraction)
  • presence of similarities is discovered through self-disclosure, which leads to greater feelings of intimacy in a couple
  • absence of similarities can cause the relationship rarely developed beyond first few dates
65
Q

complementarity

A
  • if similarities are crucial at the early stages of relationships, it seems that for long-term couples, complementarity plays a much more important role
  • complementarity refers to each of the partners having some traits that the other partner lacks, which helps each other to fulfil their needs

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