Relationships Flashcards
What is sexual selection?
An evolutionary explanation of partner preference. Attributes or behaviours that increase reproductive success and passed on and may become exaggerated over succeeding generations of offspring. Females choose males that are more likely to produce robust offspring for future generations.
What is anisogomy?
Difference between male and female gametes. One consequence of this is that there is no shortage of ferile malees but there is a shortage of fertile females.
Describe male gametes
Small, Highly mobile and are produced in large number from puberty to old age with little energy
Describe female gametes
Relatively large, static and are produced at intervals for a limited amount of fertile years
What is inter-sexual selection?
The strategies that males use to select females or females to select males. It is preferred by women as quality over quantity.
What did trivers suggest?
Females make greater commitment to choosing a mate and are more selective as the consequences are worse, therefore they choose a genetically fit partner to provide resources for. This female preference is transferred across generations
What is the sexy sons hypothesis?
The genes we see today are a result of enhanced reproductive success. A female who mates with a male will have sons with this man will therefore pass on the genes. These means the genes are processed down generations
What is intra sexual selection?
Strategies within sexes to be selected for example men competing for a women. Quantity of quality. There is a competition between males to be chosen and the winner gets to pass on his traits to new generations
How is dimophism represented?
Males and females look very different. For men it is size that matters whereas because women don’t compete there is not need to be larger or better, however youthfulness is valued.
What are the behavioural conseuqneces of intra sexual selection?
The behavioural characteristics such as aggressiveness that helped the male to win are passed down to the son
Evaluate the evolutionary explanation
One strength is that there is evidence supporting the idea of female choosiness. In a study, university students were sent around campus and were told to say to people ‘I have been noticing around. I find you very attractive. Will you go to bed with me?’ No female student agreed but 75% of men agreed. This supports that females are choosier than males in partner preferences.
Counterpoint: It is simplistic. Strategies for both sexes may differ depending on the relationship. Studies argue that men and women can be the same when looking for long term relationships. This is a more complex and nuanced explanation
Evaluate evolutionary explanations
Another strength is evidence to support the predictions of sexual selection. In a survey of over 10,000 adults in 33 countries he asked questions relating to to partner preference. Females placed more value on resource-related characteristics whereas men valued physical attractivenes more. These findings reflect consistent differences in sex preferences
Evaluate evolutionary explanations
One limitation is that the theories overlook sexual and cultural difference in partner preference. Partner preferences have undoubtadly been influenced by rapidly changing social norms of behaviour. These develop faster than predicted and have come about due to culture. Womens greater role in the workplace no longer requires men to provide for them, this is a social change. Therefore explanations today are both and all theories should account for both
What is self disclosure?
Revealing personal information about yourself. Partners reveal more about themselves as they develop in a relationship. It can help strengthen a romantic bond when used correctly.
Describe the social penetration theory
Altman and Taylor. The gradual process of revealing your inner self to someone. This involves a reciprocal exchange of information. As they disclose more nad more partners become more involved in each others lives
Describe the breadth and depth of self disclosure
As both the breadth and depth of self disclosure increase the partners become more committed to one another. Metaphor of an onion. We reveal a lot about ourselves on the first date but it is superficial. This means the breadth is narrow as some topics are off limits but we reveal more and more about ourselves as it goes on until we eventually disclose risk information
What is the reciprocity of self disclosure?
For relationships to increase in breadth and depth there may be a reciprocal element. This means partners responding in the same way to one another. This results in a balance of self disclosure
Evaluate self disclosure
One strength is that there is research support. in a study strong correlations were found between self disclosure and satisfaction/commitment. It was also found that relationships are closer when partners decide to self disclose. This increases the validity of a theory.
Counterpoint: Much of the research is correlational. This means that cause and effect relationships cannot be established. It may be that it is a third variable such as time spent together.
Evaluate self disclosure
Another strength is that it can improve communication. Romantic partners sometimes use self disclosure as a way of strengthening their bond. In a study 57% of couples said they use it so it may be beneficial for young partners to use it as well. This can help people who are having problems in their relationships
Evaluate self disclosure
One limitation is that it is not the same for all cultures. In a study on sexual self disclosure it was found that men and women in the USA disclose more than those in China however the levels of satisfaction were not different. This means it is a limited explanation.
What is physical attractiveness?
An important factor in the formation of romantic relationships. How appealing we find a persons face. This comes from a general agreement within cultures. Shackleford and Larsen suggest people with symmetrical faces are rated as moree attractive. People are also attracted to neotonus (baby faced) people
Describe the halo effect
This means someone’s physical attractiveness means that we have preconcieved ideas about them. Dion et al suggested ‘what is beautiful is good’. People who are physically good looking a consistently rated as being more successful. One distinguising feature has an effect on their attractiveness. This is also known as a self-fulfilling prophecy
What is the matching hypothesis?
We choose partners based on people who match us physically. This implies we take in our own attractiveness as a way of rating others
Describe how research on the matching hypothesis was conducted
Male and females were invited to a dance in which they were rated on attractiveness by objective observers. They also completed a questionnaire on themselves. This information would decide who they were paired up with during the evening.
What did walster find?
Hypothesis was rejected. Most liked partners were also the most physically attractive. In a replica however, when they were allowed to choose people did match. Relationships are based on compromise and we choose people in our league
Evaluate physical attractiveness
One strength is that there is research support. Palmer and peterson found that physically attractive people were also rated as being more politically knowledgable. It persisted when ppts knew they had no expertise. This therefore has implications for the political process
Evaluate physical attractiveness
One strength is that it support evolutionary explanations. Cunnigham found that women who had a small nose and large eyes for example were rated as most attractive across all cultures. This is because it is a sign of genetic fitness and this is important across all cultues. This means the importance makes sense
Evaluate physical attractiveness
One limitation is that it is not supported by real world research. Taylor studies logs on dating websites which keeps with the original hypothesis of studying. They found people wanted to date those more attractive then them. This undeermines the validity of the matching hypothesis.
Counterpoint: May be different than selecting certain people for the relationship. Meta analysis of studies which found a significant correlation in ratings of physical attractiveness. So online dating may be the same as in other elements of life.
What is filter theory?
A series of different factors progressively reduce the range of available partners to a smaller pool of possibilities. Suggested by Kerkchoff and Davis
What is our field of availables?
The entire set of people we could realistically form a relationship with
What is a field of desirables?
Those who we would want to form a relationship with
What is the first stage of filter theory?
Social demographic
Describe social demographics
features that describe populations including social class or geography. You are more likely to meet those who are physically close to you or that you share many characteristics with. This means certain people are accessible. The outcome of this is homogomy (forming relationships with those who are similar to you.
What is the second stage of filter theory?
Similarity in attitudes
Describe similarity of attitudes
Those who share our values. This promotes self-disclosure. Byrne suggested we find similarity attractive
What is the third stage of filter theory?
Complementarity
What is complentarity?
The need for your partner to balance traits that are the opposite of your own. Having traits that the other one lacks. feeling that together they form a whole
Evaluate filter theory
One strength it that there is research support. Conducted a longitudinal study in which people did a questionnaire based on similarity of attitudes and complementarity. Closeness was then measured. was associated with a similarity of values.
Counterpoint: No one has managed to replicate this study. this is due to social changes and the inability to define depth by length. This means that filter theory may lack validity
Evaluate filter theory
One limitation is that complementarity not be central to all long term relationships. Studies have shown that lesbian couples that were both dominant were the happiest. There sample had been romantically involved for over 4 and a half years
Evaluate filter theory
One limitation is that actual similarity matter less in a relationship than what was perceived. In a meta-analysis of 313 studies they found actual similarity affected attraction in lab studies. In the real world this is replaced by percieved similarity. This means similarity may be an effect of attraction rather than a cause.
What is the social exchange theory?
A theory of how relationships form and develop. Assumes that romantic partners act out of self interest in exchanging rewards and costs. A satisfied relationship is made when rewards exceed costs and potential alternatives are less attractive
Describe rewards, costs and profits
We try to minimise losses and maximise gains. Because this is deemed as subjective there is a wide range of possible outcomes. They may also change over a relationship. Rewards include emotional support and sex. Costs can include time and energy
What is the comparison level?
Way to measure profit. The amount of reward you believe you should get. This is influenced by social norms. Our CL changes over time as we acquire more knowledge. There is a link to self esteem. Someone with a low CL will likely have low self esteem
What is the comparison level for alternatives?
Provides a wider context for a relationship. This is the idea of asking yourself whether you think you could do better. We will stay in our current relationship as we believe it is more than the alternatives.
What are the stages of relationship development?
Sampling stage
Bargaining stage
Commitment stage
Institutionalisation
Describe the sampling stage
We explore the rewards or costs of social exchange by experiementing with them and observing them in other relationships
Describe the bargaining stage
Marks the beginning of the relationship. Start exchanging rewards and costs. This involves negotiating
Describe the commitment stage
Source of costs and rewards become more predictable and relationships become more stable.
Describe the insituationalisation stage
Now settled into the norms of the relationship and it is firmly established
Evaluate SET
One strength is that there is support from other studies. Study asked gay and heterosexual couples to complete questionnaires. he found those who were most comitted viwed the fewest costs. This was the first study to demonstrate the main concepts. This gives it more validity.
Counterpoint: Ignore one factor that may be important-equity. This means the partners perceptions matter more. This makes it a limited explanation
Evaluate SET
One limitation is its claim that dissatisfaction only arises once the relationship is not longer profitable. When costs outweigh ot alternatives become more attractive. However we don’t monitor this until after we are dissatisfied. This suggests we consider it as a result
Evaluate SET
Another limitation is that the concepts are vague. Rewards and costs are defined superifcially but real world they are harder to measure. The levels are also vague and hard to measure. This means that the theory is difficult to test
Describe equity theory
An economic theory of how relationships develop. It argues about rewards and costs and how whether the distribution of these is perceieved as fair is essential for a relationship
Describe the role of equity
According to Elaine Walster it matters that the level of profit is roughly the same but not that the rewards are equal. When there is a lack of equity one partner overbenefits and the other underbenefits. The underbenefitted partner is likely to feel greater dissatisfaction including anger and resent whereas the overbenefitter is likely to feel guilt.
What are the consequences of inequity?
The greater the perceived equity the less the rate of dissatifaction in the relationship. It predicts a strong correlation between the two
Describe changes in percieved equity
What makes most people dissatisfied is the level of change that occurs as time goes on. In the early days putting more in than you get out is deemed as okay but if the relationship continues like this then this is unhealthy
How to deal with inequity?
The underbenefitting partner is more likely to try and work on the relationship if they believe that it is salveagable. The more unfair it feels the harder they will work to restore the relationship. They may also revise their perceptions of costs and rewards even if nothing changes. What was viewed as a cost is now viewed as a norm.
Evaluate equity theory
One strength is that there is research support. Utne et al carried out a study of 118 newly weds and equitable. The partners who had been together for 2 years before and between the 16 and 45 age range stated them to be more satisfied if the relationship is equitable.
Counterpoint: Equity may be a feature however it has been shown that it does not increase over time. As well as this the relationships that ended and the relationships that continued showed no difference in equity. other variables were more important undermining the validity of the theory
Evaluate equity theory
One limitation is that it may not apply to all cultures. Couples from an individualist culture stated that they were most satisfied when the relationship was equitable whereas couples from collectivist cultures felt most satisfied when they were oevr benefitting. This suggests it is a limited explanation
Evaluate equity theory
Another limitation is that all partners are not concerned about achieving equitable. People are less concerned than the norm. Theyd escribed some partners as benevolents who are happy to underbenefit. Others are entitleds who believe that they deserve to overbenefit. This shows the desire for equity changes one person to another.
What is rusbult’s investment model?
Commitment depends on three factors and it is a development of SET
Describe Factor 1
Satisfaction
Based on the comparison level. It is seen to be profitable if it has many rewards and few costs. Each partner is satisfied if they are getting more out the relationship based on previous experiences
Describe Factor 2
CLAT
Romantic partners asking themselves whether they would do better elsewhere or with no romantic relationships at all
Describe Factor 3
Innestment.
Anything we were too lose if the relationship ended. There are two major types
What are intrinsic investments?
Any resources we put directly into the relationship. These can be tangible things such as money. These can be resources less easy to quantify
What are extrinsic investments?
Resources that did not previously features in the relationship but are now associated with it for example shared friends or children
Describe satisfaction vs commitment
Commitment is the main psychological factor causing people to stay in a relationship this is why dissatisfied partners stay in a relationship. They may also not want to lose an investment
What are relationship maintenance mechanisms? (Name 4)
Accommodation: Promoting the relationship
Willingness to sacrifice: Putting partners interests first
Forgiveness: Forgiving partners faults
Positive illusions: Unrealistically positive
Ridiculing alternatives: Negative about tempting alternatives
Evaluate the investment model
One strength is there is meta analysis is research support. Reviewed 52 studies which included around 11,000 ppts from five countries. They found all the factors influenced the commitment. Relationships that were the most stale lasted the longest. This was true for all couples. This suggests his claim is valid.
Counterpoint: Strong correlations have been found between all the factors. However correlation does not equal causation. The direction of causality may be the opposite
Evaluate the investment model
Another explanation is it explains relationships that involve intimate parner violence.In a study of domestically abused women it showed how they stayed as they had made investment and there were no alternatives. This shows how is can explain why people stay
Evaluate the investment model
One limitation is that it oversimplifies investment. Pointed out that there is more investment that once thought. Studies involve future investments and these are part of commitment. This means it has failed to recognised the complexity of this model
What is Duck’s phase model?
An explanation of the stages that people go through when their relationship breaks down. Duck argued that the ending of a relationship is not an abrupt one off thing but that it is a process made up of four stages. Each phase is marked by a partner reaching a threshold and their perception of a relationship changing
What is the first stage of Ducks model?
Intrapsychic Stage
Threshold: I can’t stand this anymore and something needs to change
The focus of this stage in on cognitive processes in the partner with them worrying about their partners shortcomings etc. They way up the pros and cons and evaluate these against the alternatives
They start making plans for the future
What is the second phase of Duck’s phase model?
Dyadic
Threshold: ‘I will be justified in withdrawing’
This is the process which involves interpersonal happenings within the relationship. They cannot avoid talking about the relationship. Partners will speak about their relationship and this commonly involves aggression and hostility. They will make a decision to break up or continue to pursue the relationship
What is the third phase of Ducks phase model?
The social phase
Threshold: The dissatisfied partner concludes ‘I mean it’
The focus in now on wider processes in their relationship as the behaviour is made public. Gossip is traded, partners will forge pacts and friends are expected to choose a side. This is the point of no return as the mmomentum of the break up increases
What is the fourth stage of Ducks phase model?
Grave dressing phase
Threshold: ‘It is now inevitable’
Aftermath. The person is not spinning a story about the break up to make it more favourable. Each partner is trying to maintain a positive reputation and they are also trying to gain social credit. Gossip has a large role in this stage. It also allows for them to create a personal memory to live with by dressing up memories
Evaluate Ducks phase model
One strength is that it suggests the ways that relationship breakdowns can be reversed. This model is useful as it recognises that some repair strategies are better than others. People in the firts stage should be told to focus their worrying on their partners positive traits. These can be useful in relationship counselling
Counterpoint: The model is based on individualist cultures. Relationships in collectivist cultures are harder as it starts to involve wider family. This means the models application is not useful in all cultures
Evaluate Ducks phase model
One limitation is the original model described is an incomplete explanation of a break down. Duck added a fifth phase named the resurrection phase. Ex-partners apply to new relationships, skills that have been gained from old relationships. Progression is not inevitable and the processes that occur are more important that any linear movement. Therefore the original model does not account for the complexity of a break up
Evaluate Duck’s phase model
Another limitation is that it isn’t accurate the early phases of a break up. This is because much of the research is retrospective. Partners generally recall their experiences some time after the relationship has ended so what they recall may not always be reliable and accurate. This is especially true of the early stages. This means the model may not explain the early parts of a relationship
What is self disclosure in virtual relationships?
Revealing personal information about yourself online. This may be putting things in your bio or messaging people information. When someone discloses information it can help to strengthen a relationship and develop it
Describe the reduced cues theory?
Sproull and Kiesler. Virtial relationships are less developed as they lack certain cues we depend on for example attractiveness and tone of voice . This leads to deindividuation (losing identity) and disinhibition (people are less likely to express their feelings and thoughts)
Describe the hyperpersonal model
Walther. Virtual relationships can be more impulsive and can require greater disclosure. This is because they can develop very quickly and once developed can be intimate and intense. There are two key features of hyperpersonal theory:
1. The sender has greater control over what to disclose and cues they send. This means they are able to manipulate their self-image. To acheive this disclosure can either be intensly true or false
2. The receiver gives feedback that gives reinforcement to the behaviour
Another factor that affects in anonymity. When you are aware other people do not know you, you are less likely to be accountable for your behaviour
What is absence of gating?
FTF relationships often fail to form due to barriers such as facial disfigurements being offputting. These ‘gates’ are absent in the virtual world. Gates are certain things that people may not want
What are the benefits and drawbacks of gating?
Most gates are absent in CMC meaning people can develop to a point where self-disclosure becomes less deep. Absence of gating works by refocusing attention on disclosure. Individuals may also feel free to be able to be their true selves.
However this also means people are able to create untrue identities
Evaluate virtual relationships
One limitation of the reduced cues theory is that online non-verbal cues are absent. People online use other cues such as timing and emoticons i.e. responding to a story is better than a message. These nuances are just as clear. This means virtual relationships can be perceived in the same way as FTF ones
Evaluate virtual relationships
One limitation of the hyperpersonal model is it is challenged by meta-analysis. Rupperl carried out an analysis of 25 studies that compared disclosure or interractions. They found self report studies showed the breadth, frequency and depth was higher in virtual relationships. Other studies show no significant difference between the two.
Counterpoint: However there is some evidence they do differ. Showed evidence of how self presentation occurred, Hyperhonesty occurred online whereas small talk ocurred in person. This therefore supports the models claim
Evaluate virtual relationships
Another strength is shy people find virtual relationships extremely valuable. Looked at online communication in shy people and found that they revealed their true selves more. 71% of virtual relationships survived whereas only 49% in the outside world survived. This suggests shy people benefit from online communication.
What is a parasocial relationship?
They are simlar to normal relationships but are one-sided. This is usually a fan and a celebrity in which the fan spends a lot of time and energy on them
What is the first level of parasocial relationship
Entertainment Social
Celebrities are viewed as sources of entertainment and human interraction
What is the second level of parasocial relationship?
Intense Personal
Intermediate level which reflects are greater personal involvement with a celebrity for example having frequent thoughts about them
What is the third level of parasocial relationship?
Borderline Pathological
Strongest, featuring fantasies and extreme behaviours. This may include spending money on them for example
Describe the absorption-addiction model
McCutheon links the level with things people are missing in their lives. There are two components
Absorption: Motivates an individual to focus their attention as far as possible on the celebrity becoming preoccupied with them and identifying with them
Addiction: Needing to increase their dose to gain satisfaction. This is what leads to things such as stalking
Describe how attachment theory can link to relationships
Ainsworth identified that a type c attachment are more likely to form a parasocial relationship. This is because they have needs that should be met and they fear to do this in a normal relationship due to the threat of rejection etc
Evaluate parasocial relationships
One strength is that there is research support. Used a study to assess people’s parasocial relationships and their problems in life. People who scored level 2 or 3 tended to experience much anxiety in their relationships. Suggests they can be categorised into three categories
Evaluate parasocial relationships
One strength is there is a link between celebrity worship and body image. In a study of boys and girls ages 14-16, researchers found that girls had parasocial relationships with women as they admired their body image and had body image problems themselves
Evaluate parasocial relationships
One strength is that it can explain why people all over the world form them. In a study of an I culture and a C culture it was found that in both Type A formed more parasocial relationships. Supports the view it may be a universal explanation,
Counterpoint: In another study it was found that attachment security did not effect the likelihood of forming a parasocial relationship. This shows parasocial relationships are not the only way of compensating attachment type.
