Forensics Flashcards
What is offender profiling?
A behavioural and analytical tool that it intended to help profilers accurately predict and profile the characteristics of unkown offenders. It may be used to help people narrow down a list of subjects. Will involve careful analysis of the crime scene and anaylsis of other evidence in order to generate hypotheses about the probable characteristics of the offender
What is the top-down approach?
Created in America. Gathered data from in-depth interviews with 36 sex offenders and concluded that they could be organised into categories of organised ansd disorginised murderers. Each category had certain characteristics which meant that the data collected from a crime scene matched an offender than we could predict other characteristics, therefore profiling them
Describe an organised offender
Show evidence of having their crime planned in advance. The victim is targeted and they have a type of victim. The offender maintains a high degree of control during the crime and may operate with surgical precsision. There is little evidence left at the crime scene. They tend to be above average intelligence, a skilled job and are a socially competent
Describe a disorganised offender
They show little evidence of planning and it suggests their attacks may be a ‘spur of the moment’. The body is left at the scene and there is little control from the offender. They tend to have a lower than average intelligence and are unemployed. They tend to live alone and close to a crime
What are the stages of constructing an FBI profile?
Data assimilation - The profiler reviews the evidence
Crime scene classification - organised or disorganised
Crime reconstruction- - hyptheses in terms of sequence of event, victim behaviour etc
Profile generator
Evaluate the top down approach
One strength is that there is RESEARCH SUPPORT for an organised offender. Canter et al conducted an analysis of 100 US murders conducted by different serial killers. Smallest space analysis was used as they assessed 39 aspects of serial killings i.e. whether there is torture or restraint, a weapon etc. This anlysis revealed there is subset of features that match typology
Counterpoint: Many suggest they are not mutually exclusive. There are a variety of combinations given at a crime scene. A killer may have multiple characteristics so it may be more of a continuum
Evaluate the top down approach
Another strength of top down profiling is that it can be adapted to other crimes. Meketa et al has suggested that top down profiling has been recently applied to burlgary leading to a 85% rise in solved burglaries in three states. The detection method adds to more categories inetrpersonal and oppurtunistic. This suggests top down profling has a wider effect than assumed
Evaluate the top down approach
One limitation is the evidence on which it is based. Canter et al has argued that the sample on which the study was based is poor and it did not include different types of offender and there was no standard set of questions so each interview was different. This therefore suggests offender profling does not have a sound scientific base
Describe the bottom up approach
Developed in the UK. It refers to a data driven profile in which evidence is collected from the crime scene to build up of profile of the criminal. It involves a more rigourous scrutiny of the crime scene in comparison to using fixed typologies
Describe investigative psychology
It is an attempt to apply staistical procedures and theory to analysis of a crime scene. The aim is to establish patterns which can be used to develop a statistical database which is used as a baseline. It is matched against this database to establish a profile
What are some of the key variables in investigative psychology?
Interpersonal coherence- How they act with the victim. For example some rapists want to gain control whereas others are mroe apologetic
Significance of time and place- Where they live
Forensic awareness- whether they have been involved in a crime before and are able to cover up their evidence
Describe geographical profiling
Uses information about the location of crimes to make links to where the offender is living/where their base is (crime mapping). It is based on spatial consistency which suggests offenders work in geographical locations. Assumption is that they will work in geographical location they are familar with
Describe Canters circle theory
The pattern of offending forms a circle around the offenders operational base. We can describe an offender in one of two ways
Marauder- close proximity
Commuter- travel a distance away
Can offer important insight into the nature of the crime i.e. whether it was planned or not
Evaluate the bottom up approach
One strength is that there is research support. Canter and heritage studies a group of 66 sexual offences using small space analysis. Several behaviours such as impersonal speech were consistent and each person displayed a characteristic pattern of behaviour to establish whether two or more offences were by the same person
Counterpoint: Case linkage will only be based on historical crimes in the database and they were only solved due to this linkage, creating a circular argument
Evaluate the bottom up approach
Another strength is there is research evidence for georgraphical profiling. Lundigran and Canter studies 120 serial killers in the US and found that each person had a centre of gravity as each time they disposed of a body they went in a different direction. This meant their house was found
Evaluate the bottom up approach
One limitation is geographic profiling may not be sufficient on its own. May be reliant on the quality of data provided. Crime reports are not always accurate and only 75% of crimes are reported to the police. Other factors are also just as important in creating an approach. This suggests it does not always lead to a successful capture
Describe Lombroso’s hisorical/biological approach
Suggests criminals were genetic throwbacks and were biologically different from non-criminals. Offenders were lacking evolutionary development meaning they turn to crime. He suggested crime was rooted in the genes of those who partook suggesting it was innate
Describe the avatistic form
Offender subtypes could be marked by specific facial characteristics etc. These features include: high cheekbones, prominent jaw, dark skin, extra fingers or toes. he also suggested other features such as tattoos and slang could link to this
Describe Lombroso’s offender types
Murderes had bloodshot eyes, curly hair and long ears
Sexual deviants had glinting eyes, swollen lips and projecting ears
Fraudsters had thin lips
Describe lombrosos research
Studies 363 dead convicts and 3839 living ones and found 40% of acts are found by people with the avatistic form
Evaluate lombroso
One strength is that it has changed the face of the study of crime. He has been hailed the father of modern criminology as he shifted it away from a moralistic perspective and towards a more scientific perspective. He also is heralded as starting offender profiling.
Counterpoint: Critics has suggested his work isn’t entirely positive. many have highlights racist undertones as many features of the avatistic form (curly hair, dark skin) are common for those of african descent. This fitted into the eugenic attitudes of the 19 century
Evaluate lombroso
One limitation is evidence contradicts the link between avatism and crime. Goring carried out a study of 3000 offenders and 3000 non-offenders and found that there was no evolutuonary difference between the two. This therefore challenges the idea that offenders can be physically distinguished
Evaluate lombroso
Another limitation is his methods were poorly controlled. Lombroso did not compare his sample of offenders with a control group which leads to a high level of confounding variables i.e. there has been links between crime and poverty. This suggests his research does not meet modern scientific standards
What are genetics?
Genetics refer to DNA and how physical features such as eye colour or size of brain structures are passed down from person to person. It may also impact psychological traits
Describe a twin study showing offending rates
Christiansen studied over 3500 twin pairs in Denmark and found that that offending behaviour concordance rates for MZ male twins were 35% whereas for DZ male twins it was 13%. This incuded all twins born between 1880 and 1910 and data was compared to Danish offending rates
Describe candidate genes
A genetic analysis of almost 800 Finnish offenders found there are two main genes that cause offences: MAOA and CDH13.
MAOA is linked to serotonin control and has been linked to violent crime
CDH13 is linked to substance abuse and ADHD
Analysis found that 5-10% of all violent crime in finland is a result of this
Describe the Diathesis stress model
A tendency towards offending behaviour may come through a combination of a genetic predisposition and a psychological event
Evaluate genetic explanations for offending
One limitation is the assumption of equal environments. It is assumed by researchers that the environment were kept constant and while this may be the case for MZ twins as they look similar so people treat them the same, this may not be the case for DZ twins. This means concordance rates for MZ may be highers as they are treated more similarly
Evaluate genetic explanations for offending
One strength is there is support for the D-S model. A study of 13,000 danish offenders shows that when no parent had committed a crime, 13.5% of adoptees committed crime. however this rises to 20% is the bio parents had and 24.% is both sets had. This shows both genetic and environment has influence on genes
What is the neural explanation for offending behaviour?
Behaviour is caused by dysfunction in the brain and nervous system. There is differences in offenders that have been associated with APD whic results in lack of empathy etc
Describe the prefrontal cortex role in offending behaviour
Several brain scan studies show people with APD have reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex, the part of the brain that regulates emotions. They found a 11% decrease in grey matter
Describe mirror neurons
They may show empathy but differently. Found that when asked to empathise with someone they were able to do this. This is a result of mirror neurons which suggest that they may have an empathy switch they can turn off and on
Evaluate neural explanations
One strength is there is research support. Reviewed evidence of damage and found that those with damage tend to show impulsive behaviour and emotional instability. Shows brain damage may have an effect
Evaluate neural explanations
One limitation is that it is complex. Study of offenders that scored highly on this shows that they has other risk factors as a child such as neglect. It could be that this alongisde the neural differences could have caused it. Suggests the relationship is complex
Describe personality theory
Eyesneck
Proposed that behaviour could be shown along two dimensions: Introversion-extraversion (E) and Neuroticism-Stability (N). They combine to form personality traits. He later added a third: psychotism sociability
Describe Eyesnecks theory as biological
Believed behaviour was caused by the type of nervous system we would inherit. There are three main types
Describe an extravert
Underactive nervous system which means they constantly seek excitement and take risks. They also do not condition easily and do not learn from their mistakes
Describe a neurotic
High level of reactivity in the sympathetic system. They tend to be nervous, jumpy and overanxious making their behabiour hard to predict
Describe a psychotic
High levels of testoterone and therefore are unemotional and easily aggressive
Describe the criminal personality
People who score highly on being extraverted, neurotic and psychotic. Extraverts get involved in danger, neurotics overreact and psychotic are unemotional. This creates a criminal
Describe the role of socialisation in Eyesnecks theory
Saw offending behaviour as developmentally imature as they need instant gratificatiom. He believed people with high E and N scores are hard to condition ot teach gratititude
How did Eyesneck measure the criminal personality?
Developed the EPQ which locates repsondents as E, N or P to determine their personality type
Evaluate Eyesneck
One strength is that there is research support. Eyesneck compared 2070 prisoners responses to the EPQ to 2422 controls. Measures of E,N, P were sampled and prisoners scored high on all three
Counterpoint: Meta-anlysis showed they scored highly on P but not N and E. As well as this there is inconsistencies in the EEG measures of intraverts and extraverts reducing credibility of Eyesnecks theory
Evaluate Eyesneck
One limitation is that it is simplistic. Study of adolescent offending behaviour and lifelong behaviour. Poor predictor for whether someone is becoming a career criminal. Suggested it is due to an interaction of personality and environment. More complex
Evaluate Eyesneck
Another limitation is cultural factors are ignored. Study of hispanic and african american criminals. Divided into six groups based on offending history and nature of offences. Found they were less extravert than controls. Therefore this reduces its generalisability
Describe level of moral reasoning
Refers to the ability to differ between right and wrong . The higher someones level is the more likely their behaviour is due to morals, the lower means they are seeking approval
Describe moral development
Kohlberg
The higher the level, the more reasoning. Based on Heinz dilema. Suggested three stages:
Pre conventional: Either to avoid punishment or gain something
Conventional Morality: For approval or social order
Post conventional Morality: Challenge right or develop principles
How does level of reasoning link to criminality
Likely to be pre-conventional. Associated with less mature and childish reasoning. Studies show that criminals tend to be egocentric and have poor social skills. Those higher in reasoning have higher sympathy levels
Evaluate moral reasoning
One strength is that there is research support. Palmer and Hollin compared reasoning in 332 non-offenders and 126 offenders using moral dilemas such as stealing. Offenders showed lower reasoning therefore providing support
Evaluate moral reasoning
One limitation is it depends on the type of crime. Found those who committed stealing were more likely to be pre-conventional and those who committed impulse crimes were less likely. Pre-conventional tend to be associated with crims where offenders think they can get away with it
What are cognitive disortions?
Errors or biases in people’s ways of thinking that mean they think irrationally (faulty). Researchers have linked this to how offenders interpret other behaviour in relation to their own actions
Describe Hostile Attribution Bias (HAB)
Assuming others are being confrontational when they aren’t (Misinterpreting actions) Offenders misread certain cues such as being looked at and this may trigger a violent and disproportionate response.
In a study in which offenders were showed neutral expressions from people, they were more likely to misread than a control group. This may have routes in childhood, children that were deemed as more aggressive were more likely to view certain things as hostile
What is minimalisations?
It is an attempt to downplay the seriousness of an offence and has elsewhere been referred to as the application of a euphemistic label for example burglars may argue that they are supporting their family to downplay the offence. Criminals are the most likely as in a study 54% denied that they had even committed an offence.
Evaluate cognitive distortion
One strength is its application to therapy. Therapy aims to challenge the ways that these offenders think and to make them ‘face up’ to their actions and establish a less distorted view. Reduced denial and minimalisation has overall reduced offending rates. Theory of cognitive disortion has practical value
Evaluate cognitive distortion
One limitation is the level depends on the kind of offence. Gathered questionnaire responses for sexual offenders. They found that non-contact offenders (images) used more distortion than contact offenders (physical abuse). Those who has a previous history of offending were more likely to use distortions
Describe differential association theory (DAT)
Individuals learn motives, values, attitudes or techniques from others in relation to offending behaviour i.e. one person may be socialised to negative attitudes towards crime whereas another may be socialised to positive attitudes. Based on a scientific process in which people conditions are present when the crime is done, and absent when the crime is absent
Describe offending as a learned behaviour
It occurs through interaction with significant others who the child values and spends the most time with. Suggests it is possible to mathematically predict whether someone will commit a crime. You need to know the frequency, intensity and duration
Describe how offenders learn attitudes towards crime
When they are socialised they are exposed to values and attitudes towards the law. Sutherland argues that if a criminal hears more pro-crime attitudes, than anti-crime attitudes they are more likely to offend
Describe how offenders learn techniques
They may learn particular methods for example how to break into a locked house etc
Describe socialisation in prison
DAT also accounts for why so many criminals reoffend. While in prison criminals may learn specific offences from one another, especially more experienced offenders. This learnign may occur through imitation or direct tuition
Evaluate DAT
One strength is it changed the focus of offending explanations. He was successful in moving away from the Avatistic form or weakness by drawing attention to how deviant environments may have an effect on the people. This means it offers a more realistic explanation than eugenics
Counterpoint: Runs the risk of stereotyping those from impoverished backgrounds. Sutherland took great care to mention this should be looked at individually. However the theory suggests that those who are exposed to pro-crime values are more likely to commit
Evaluate DAT
Another strength is that the theory can account for offending in all sectors of society. Sutherland suggested that while some crimes i.e. burglary are associated with poverished areas of society however he also suggested some a more common in affluent areas. He suggested that white collar crime is common among those of a middle class background. This shows it is not just the lower classes who commit offences
Evaluate DAT
One limitation is that it is difficult to test the predictions. While Sutherland provided a a testable way of predicting, many of these are not operationalised. With the idea of being exposed to different values outweighing on another, it is hard to know at what point the urge kicks in a the offending career starts. This means the theory does not have scientific credibility
Describe an inadequate superego
Formed at the end of the phallic stage when children resolve the oedipus complex. Works in the morality principle and punishes the ego through guilt. Has suggested that an inadequate superego, offending behaviour is definate as the ID is not controlled. There are three types
Describe the weak superego
If the same gender parent is absent which leads to less oppurtunity for indentification and the inability to internalise a superego
Describe the deviant superego
If the superego internalised has immoral or deviant values, it makes offending behaviour more likely
Describe the over-harsh superego
An excessively punishing or strict parenting style can lead to an anxious superego. This may lead to crimes as the superego needs punishing
Describe the role of emotion in the psychodynamic behaviour
Allows primitive, emotional demands to become uppermost in guiding moral behaviour. Deals with the emotional lfie for example anxiety and lack of guilt
How does Bowlby’s 44 Thieves link to psychodynamic approach?
It suggests that those who did not have a mother (12/14), were more prone to affectionless psychopathy and therefore a lack of guilt which leads to delinquent behaviour
Evaluate the psychodynamic approach in offending behaviour
One strength is there is research support for the superego. Studied 10 offenders in a Freudian way and found that disturbances in the superego were present. Each person expressed feelings of guilt and the need for self punishment. This therefor supports the role of psychic conflicts
Counterpoint: Generally they are not supported. We would expect children of harsh parenting to always be anxious. However the opposite has been found as parents have raised children who are rebellious. This therefore questions the relationship between the two
Evaluate psychodynamic approach in offending
One limitation is that it is gender bias. An implicit assumption is that girls develop weaker superegos as they do not experience castration anxiety and they are therefore less likely to identify. This suggests women should be more likely to offend however the opposite of this is true. In a study in childrne, girls tended to be more moral than boys. This suggests there may be alpha bias in the centre of the theory
Evaluate the psychodynamic approach in offending
One limitation is Bowlby’s theory is based on an association. In interviews with 500 people it was found maternal depriavation is a poor predictor of offending. It also does not establish a causal relationship and there are other reasons for this link. This suggests it may not be one of the reasons
What is custodial sentencing?
Convicted offender spending time in a prison or closed institution such as a psychiatric hospital. There are four main reasons for this
What are the reasons for custodial sentencing?
Deterrence
Incapacitation
Retribution
Rehabilitation
Describe deterrence
The unpleasent experience is designed to put off other from offending. General deterrence means sending a broad message and individual deterrence will stop the person from recommitting. Based on behaviourist idea of conditioning through vicarious punishment
Describe incapacitation
Means of protecting the public. Depends on the severity of the offence and offender
Describe retribution
Society is enacting revenge by making the person suffer, and the level of suffering should be proportionate to the offence. Many people see prison as the best option in this sense
Describe rehabilitation
Reforming criminals. Offenders should leave prison adjusted and ready to take back their place in society. Prison should provide an oppurtunity to develop skills or treatment programs
Describe some of the effects of custodial sentencing
- Stress and Depression: Suicide rates are higher. Increased risk of developing psychological disorders upon release
- Institutionalisation: Prisoners are no longer able to function on the outside as they have become used to the norms inside
- Prisonisation: Behaviour that is unacceptable on the outside is rewarded on the inside
Describe recividism
Recidivism means reoffending. In recent years the UK figure has been around 45%. Rates differ based on a numver of factors including time in prison and age. In norway it is as low of 20% as they focus on reforming
Evaluate custodial sentencing
One limitation is the psychological effects. 116 prisoners killed themselves in 2016 in England and Wales. This is nine times higher than the general population. Studies found that 15% of women and 25% of men report SZ signs. Remains detrimental to health.
Counterpoint: Does not include those who had psychosis etcc before. Some prisoners may import there symptoms so we don’t know how bad it is. This suggests there are confounding variables
Evaluate custodial sentencing
One strength is that it is an oppurtunity for training and treatment. Offenders may become better people and lead a crime free life after prison. Many prisoners find employment after release. Offenders that took part in education program were 43% less likely to commit. Suggests prison may be worthwhile
Evaluate custodial sentencing
Another limitation is they may become better offenders. They may experience other education and develop negative skills. Offender may teach others or develop criminal contects that they use on release. May undermine attempts to rehabilitate
Describe behaviour modification
An application of the behaviourist approach to treatment. It is possible to encourage the learning of behaviours and the unlearning of disobedience. It is designed in the knowledge of reinforcement and operant conditioning
Describe a token economy system
Based on operant conditioning. Prisoners are given a token each time they perform a desirable behaviour such as following the rules. Each of these token processes are made clear to the prisoners before it occurs and tokens are taken away when disobedience occurs (punishment)
Describe primary and secondary reinforcers
Tokens are secondary reinforcers as they derive their processes from association. Things such as calls with loved ones and time outside are primary reinforcers as they are directly rewarding
What are the three steps to designing a token economy system?
- Operationalise
- Scoring system
- Train staff
Describe how to operationalise target behaviours
Breaking behaviours down into component parts for example speaking to others politely. These should be objectively measured and agreed with all prison staff in advance
Describe how to create a scoring system
Behaviours are hierachal as some require more demanding efforts than others, so require greater rewards. Some systems may reward tokens directly where others may award points that can be transferred into tokens
Describe how to train staff
Training may involve several hours for a number of weeks. The aim is to standardise the procedures so all staff are rewarding the same behaviours in the same way. Staff must also record so they can be assessed
Evaluate behaviour modification
One strength is that there is research support. Hobbs and holt introduced a TES across three behavioural units. They observed a significant difference in positive behaviour compared to a non token econmy system group. Field found TES had a positive result across behaviour, and for those who didn’t respond they were sent to a behavioural unit which has a positive effect. Suggests they do work
Counterpoint: However the success does depend on the knowledge of the prison staff. Found benefits were lost when staff were inconsistent, works as a result of lack of training etc. Suggests they need full consistent staff
Evaluate behaviour modification
Another strength is that it is easy to implement. The appeal of it rests largely on the ease in which it can be administered, there is no need for a specialist professional. They can be employed by anyone and they are cost effective and easy to follow. Suggests they can be established and accessed
Evaluate behaviour modification
One limitation is that it may not affect long-term behaviour. It has little rehabilitative value as skills developed in prison are lost upon release. Cognitive treatments have a longer lasting effect as it forces the criminal to take responsbility for their actions and this has more of an effect on the outside whereas in TES, they can simply play along with the system in order to access the rewards. This explains why once it is discontinued the offender can regress
Describe anger management
Involves identifying signs that trigger anger and establishing ways to calm down and deal with the situation in a positve way. Recognise it and manage it. Can facilitate rehabilitation.
Describe CBT
Cognitive factors trigger arousal and this produces aggressive acts. He suggests that in some people anger is quick to surface in situations that are anxiety inducing or threatening. Becoming angry is reinforced by the individuals feelings of control in that situation. Criminals are forced to recognise cognitive factors that may trigger anger and develop techniques to combat this
What are the three stages to anger management?
Cognitive preparation
Skills Acquisition
Application Practice
Describe cognitive preparation
Requires an offender to reflect on past experiences and consider a typical pattern of anger. If the way in which a therapist interprets actions is irrational then it is key for the therapist to make it clear. By re-defining a triggering experience, the therapist is attempting to break an automatic response
Describe skills acquisition
Offenders are introduced to a range of techniques and skills to help them deal with anger inducing situations. Cognitive: Positive self talk to encourage calmness. Behavioural: Assertiveness training im how to communicate more effectively. Physiological: Deal with physical reaction for example relaxation training
Describe application practice
Offenders are given an opputunity to practise their skills in a carefull controlled environment. Role play may involve the offender and therpaist enacting scenarios that may have escaltaed feeling of anger in the past. The offender must be engaged and the therapist must be careful. If it works this is known as positive reinforcement
Describe the positive outcome of anger management with young offenders
Keen et al studied progress with offenders aged 17-21 who took part in a nationally recognised offender programme. This follows a four week period. The final outcome was positive and offenders reported an increase in self control etc
Evaluate anger management
One strength is that its benefits outlast behaviour modification. Unlike behaviour modification, anger management tackles the causes of behaviour such as the cognitive processes. Behaviour modification only deals with the surface level cause. Anger management may give offenders new insight into the cause of their criminality and allow them to self discover ways of managing themselves. Suggests it is more likely than behaviour modification to lead to permanent change
Counterpoint: However follow up studies suggest otherwise. There is little evidence that it reduces recidivism rates in the long term. This is because it relies on role play which may not accurately represent real life. Suggests it may not reduce reoffending
Evaluate anger management
One limitation is that it may depend on individual factors. They found that participation in the anger management program had no real impact when compared to a control group. However this was not true for all. Those with high levels of anger before engaged well and offenders who were open to change also engaged. This suggests it only benefits offenders of a certain profile
Evaluate anger management
Another limitation is that it is expensive. Require the services of highly specialised trained people who are used to dealing with offenders. This means many prisons may not have the resources to do this and in prisons that are apathetic or hostile, this does not occur. Change such as this takes time. This suggests they are unlikely to work in a lot of prisons
Describe restorative justice
Focuses on the rehabilitation of an offender through reconciliation with the victims. This enables the offenders to see the impact of their crime and empowers survivors
How does restorative justice change the emphasis?
Switches the emphasis from the needs of the state to the needs of the individual victim. This therefore seeks to be a healing process. It is less about retribution but more about reparation. Focuses on two things
The victim and their recovery
The criminal and their recovery
Give some key features of restorative programmers
Trained mediator
Non-courtroom setting
Important their is an active involvement by all there
Focuses on positive outcomes for the survivor
Describe sentencing and restitution
May occur pre-trial, alongside a sentence, as an alternative to prison, or as an incentive to reduce the length of a sentence. Restitution is refers to a financial payment a criminal may make to the survivor for example paying for a break in. It may also include them fixing physical damage. Can also be in a more emotional sense i.e. healing self esteem
What is the restorative justice council?
Independent body whos role is to establish a clear standard for justice and to support survivors and specialist. They advocate for it beyond dealing with crime for example resolving conflicts in schools etc
Evaluate restorative justice
One strength is that evidence suggests there are positive outcomes. In a study 85% of survivors said meeting their offender helped them and 78% would recomment it. Only 2% made them feel worse. Suggests it achieves some of its aims
Counterpoint: Resorative processes are not as survivor focused as once thought. They can become distorted, as survivors are used as a way of rehabilitating. Needs may be seen as secondary
Evaluate restorative justice
One strength is that it leads to reduced recidivism. A meta-anlysis compared those who had done restorative and those who hadn’t. The reoffending rates of restorative were much lower. Reduction was larger in violent crimes. This suggests it has a positive effect
Evaluation restorative justice
One limitation is offenders may abuse the system. Hinges on an offenders intentions being honourable, that they are taking part to actually reduce the hurt they have caused. Some use it to avoid punishment or playing down faults. This explains why not all offenders benefit
