Issues and Debates Flashcards
What is Gender Bias?
Different treatment/representation of males and females based on stereotypes and not on real differences. It is scientifically misleading, upholds stereotypes and validates discrimination
What is universitality?
Any characteristic that is capable of being applied to all despite differences in culture and upbringing
What is alpha bias?
Alpha bias refers to the idea of a psychologist exaggerating differences between men and women. An example of this is Freud’s oedipal conflict which suggests that a boy will gain castration anxiety of his father whereas a girls superego will become weaker
What is beta bias?
Beta bias refers to the idea of a psychologist that ignores or minimises differences and believes that their research van be applied to both men and women. An example of this in the fight or flight response which has only been tested on male animals as female animals were deemed to be hormonal. However new research suggests that females have more oxytocin which creates differences
What is androcentrism?
Androcentrism refers to the idea of research that is focused on male behaviour and is judged according to male standard. Womens behaviour on the other hand is deemed as misunderstood
What is gynocentrism?
Refers to research that is centred on or focuses on women
Apply gender bias to asch’s research
One issue is that Asch lacks population validity
His sample consists of 123 male college students from America and is therefore bias
Asch assumed that the results of his research would apply to females and this is known as beta bias, where psychologists minimise differences between males and females. This results in a bias view that assumes men and women are alike in conformity and therefore shows an androcentric view
This matters as it means we are unable to generalise results to females
Evaluate gender bias
One strength is that simply being aware of gender bias is a positive. By developing an understanding of bias psychologists have put in a number of solutions. For example some psychologists have put in theories that emphasise the importance and value of women. Cornwell et all suggested that females are better at learning as they are more attentive and organised. As a result this challenges gender stereoypes and gender bias research
Evaluate gender bias
One limitation is that is may create leading assumptions about female behaviour, fail to challenge negative stereoypes and validate discrimination. Dalton suggested that at a certain time of their menstrual cycle women are more likely to commit crimes, have accidents, commit suicide and have a lower IQ. This could have a negative impact as it shows them to be volatile and victims of their own biology. Can cause discrimination in the workplace
Evaluate gender bias
One limitation is that it is important not to make judgements about male behaviour as well. For example research has suggested that males are less sensitive than females and that they can be more aggressive. It could be that men find themselves discriminated against in the workplace when applying for jobs such as counsellors that require senisitivity. It could also cause bias judgement. Therefore when we publish papers it is important to provide a balanced view that does not uphold discrimination
Evaluate gender bias
One limitation is that we must be careful about sexism in the psychology profession. A lack of women at the senior level means that female concerns may not be reflected in the questions asked. This is a problem as it may mean that research focuses on male areas of interest and not female areas so therefore targeted research may not eb created in abundance.
What is cultural bias?
Cultural bias refers to judging all phenomena in the lens of you own culture, ignoring cultural differences
What is alpha bias? (Culture)
When a theory exaggerates differences between different cultures and assumed they are profoundly different
What is beta bias (Culture)?
When the differences between cultures are minimised and therefore people think all theories can apply to all cultures
What is ethnocentrism?
Judging others cultures by one’s own standards. In an extreme form it may be the superiority of one’s culture which can cause prejudice
Give an example of ethnocentrism
The Strange Situation is ethnocentric as it takes Ainsworths American views and beliefs and applies them to infant from other cultures despite the way they parent being different. They used in imposed etic
What is an imposed etic?
Studying inside one culture and then applying it to other cultures
What is an emic?
An emic fully studies a cultural with no cross cultural references or other influences on that culture
What is cultural relativism?
Refers to norms, values and standards can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts
Give an example of cultural relativism
Sternbergs study.
He studies intelligence but acknowledged that in some ‘less literate’ cultures this may be based on more co-ordination skills in comparison to the other cultures
Evaluate cultural difference
One limitation is that many classic studies are culturally bias. Both Asch and Milgram only used American men and when applied in other cultures they produced very different results. For example it was found that in Asch’s replication it was more conformity in collectivist cultures. This suggests social influence can only be applied in individualist cultures
Counterpoint: Due to media globalisation it is argued that there is not a distinct difference anymore. A review found that in 14 out of 15 studies showed that there was not difference between Japan and the USA. Suggests our labels are lazy and simplistic
Evaluate cultural bias
One strength is the emergence of cultural psychology. It is an emerging field that studies how people are shaped by their own culture. They avoid ethnocentric assumptions and take and emic approach. They conduct research inside the culture using indigenous researchers. Suggests modern psychologists are aware of bias and are taking steps to reduce it
Evaluate cultural bias
One limitation is that it has lead to prejudice against certain groups. In WW1 a group of soldiers created an intelligence quiz and this involved many ethnocentric viewpoints such as naming all the american presidents. When African-Americans scored the lowest they were mde fun of and deemed ‘mentally unfit’. They were also denied an education and professional oppurtunities. This illustrates how cultural bias can be used to justify prejudice and discriminiation
What is the free will vs determinism debate?
Refers to the idea of behaviour being either governed by internal/external processes or can we determine what we do. Different appraoches fall on different sides of the debate i.e. the humanistic approach argues free will whereas the biological approach argues that we are determined by internal processes
What is free will?
Human beings are self-determining and can make their own choices. It does not deny there may be other influences however it does reject these influences as being important.
What is determinism?
Individuals behaviour is shaped by internal or external forces rather than an individuals own will
What is hard determinism?
Also referred to a fatalism and suggets all human behaviour has a cause and a principle. It should be possible to identify and describe these causes. We cannot ocntrol these forces
What is soft determinism?
Idea put forward by James (1890). He thought that while it may be scientists jobs to determine our behaviour this does not retract from our own freedoms and we can make rational choices everyday
What is biological determinism?
Used in the biological approach. Emphasises the role of internal processes in behaviour such as the influence of genes on mental health. Modern day biologists would recognise how environment can also affect our behaviour
What is environmental determinsm?
Used in behaviourist approach. Skinner described our behaviour as a result of conditioning and free will being an illusion. Our behaviour is simply a sum of all reinforcement in our life
What is psychic determinism?
Used in the psychodynamic approach. He emphasised how our behaviour is a sum of all our conflicts in childhood and how they were repressed. There is not such thing as an accident
What is the scientific emphasis on causal explanations?
One of the basic principles in science is that every event has a cause and that cause can be explained using general laws. Knowledge of causes and formulation of laws are important as they allow scientists to determine the future. An ideal for this is a lab experiment
Evaluate determinism
One strength is that it fits in with science. The idea that behaviour is ordered puts psychology on a footing wiht more establish science. This approach means we can predict and control human behaviour and has led to treatments to benefit many for example drugs to help with OCD. This shows behaviour is determinist
Evaluate determinism
One limitation is that it is not compatible with our legal system. An offender must be morally responsible for their actions and a person cannot say they have committed crimes due to their background. Our law system does have diminished responsibility to count for the determining factor of mental illness
Evaluate free will
A strength of free will is we often make choices in everyday life. We think we are making are our decisions and this makes sense to us. This means it has face validity. The idea of free will makes us think we are in control. There are studies which show that this makes us happier
Evaluate free will
A limitation is that it is not supported by neurological evidence. Brain studies of decision making have revealed evidence against free will. Brain activity occurs up to 10 seconds before we do it. This shows how our most basic actions are determined by our brains before we act.
What are the 4 levels of explanation?
Highest - Social and Cultural expectations of behaviour
Middle - Psychological Explanation
Lowest - Biological Explanations
Give an example of the highest level
Low energy levels and insomnia
Give an example of the middle level
Depression being explained by Becks cognitive triad
Give an example of the lowest level
OCD being explained by candidate genes
Describe reductionism
An approach that breaks down complex things into smaller and simpler components and this is desirable because this behaviour is best understood this way. For example they would assume that dpression is caused by low levels of serotonin
What are the two types of reductionism?
Biological
Environmental
Describe biological reductionism
Reducing behaviour to biology as we are biological organisms i.e. OCD being caused by genes
Describe environment reductionism
Behviourists suggest that all behaviour can be explained by stimulus and response links. An example of this would be the two process model of phobias
Evaluate reductionism
One strength is that it is consistent with science. Science aims to predict and control behaviour and reductionism allows for this. Smaller parts are easier to measure in a lab so causal relationships can be established. Therefore it has scientific credibility
Evaluate reductionism
One limitation is that it ignores the complexity of human behaviour. This is because they ignore social contexts which often give behaviour its meaning. This means it may simplify complex phenomena too much.
Describe holism
Perceiving the whole experience rather than an individual feature or relations between them. Gestalt psychology suggests that are whole is greater than its parts and to study behaviours as a system
Evaluate holism
One strength is that it provides a whole picture. Some behaviour can only be understood as part of a whole such as conformity. Therefore holism may provide a bigger picture
Evaluate holism
One limitation is that it is difficult to investigate. This proses a practical problem as it becomes difficult for many researchers to identify explanations to base treatment on. May not lead to the development of disorders treatment.
What is the idiographic approach?
A method of experiment which focuses on individuals and how unique they are. Subjective and human experience are used to focus on behaviour.
What methods are used in the idiographic approach?
Studying the individual not the groups. produce qualitative data. An example of this would be KF
Give example of idiographic research
- Freud- Used case studies such as Little Hans
- Humanism- Focuses on the experience of an individual
What is the nomothetic approach?
Seeks to formulate general laws of behaviour based on the study of groups. Summarise differences through generalisations.
What laws has the nomothetic approach created?
Classifying people into groups
Establishing principles of behaviour
Establishing dimensions
What techniques does the nomothetic approahch use?
Scientific method such as lab studies. Produce quantitave data
Give examples of the nomothetic approach
- Cognitive psychologists drawing up general inferences about behaviour
- Biological approach making use of brain scans as a way of looking at behaviour
Evaluate the idiographic approach
One strength is it provides qualitative data. This provides and in-depth account and can help to develop psychological theories for example Clive Wearing. This means it can lead to further research
Evaluate the idiographic approach
One limitation is that research methods lack scientific rigour. They rely on subjective data which leves it open to research bias which reduces reliability. This translates to a lack of validity
Evaluate the nomothetic approach
One strength is that it enables laws to be reliably established. It had led to social norms for example IQ levels. This acts as a good baseline for certain things such as intellectucal ability
Evaluate the nomothetic approach
One limitation is that it may undervalue the importance of experience. It may ‘lose the whole person’ as it tells us little about the experiences of those who have suffered. This may mean it has done little to improve people lives.
What is nature?
Behaviour is a product of innate biological or genetic factors. Heriting is the process by which traits are passed down from one generation to the next
Give an example of nature
Bowlbys theory that children are biologically predisposed to become attached. They are innately attached
What is nurture?
View that are behaviour is a product of environmental factors and influences. Comes from outside the body
Give an example of nurture
Bheaviourits explain attachment by CC and OC. The environment is the learning of this behaviour
What is the heritability co-efficient?
Numerical range from 1-10, 1 being entirely genetic
What is the interractionist approach?
Both nature and nurture work together to shape human behaviour
What is nativism?
Certain skills are wired into the brain at birth
What is the diathesis stress model?
A disorder is a result of a genetic vulnerability and a stress interraction for example gene for OCD being triggered by a life event
What are epigenetics?
Our genes play a role in our health and our behaviour can change genes i.e. smoking
Evaluate the nature-nurture debate
One strength is adoption studies. They seperate the competing influences of nature and nurture. If adopted children are said to be more similar to their adoptive parents suggesting nurture whereas if they are more simliar to their biological parents it is nature. A meta analysis found that 41% of aggression is genetic.
Counterpoint: This may be misguided as nature and nurture are seperate entities that can’t be pulled apart. People create their own nurtute by selecting environments that are compatible with their nature. This is referred to a ‘niche picking’. Does not make sense to look at either
Evaluate nature-nurture
One strength is the support for epigenetics. The starvation of the Dutch in WW2 show how traits can be passed down. It has been reported that women who became pregnant in the famine went on to have low birth weight babies. These babies were twice as likely to pick up scizophrenia. Life experiences can leave epigenetic markers.
Evaluate the nature nurture debate
A final strength is that it has real world application. Suggests that OCD is highly genetic and this can influence certain things such as genetic counselling. This may mean that people who are likely to have OCD can use this as a way of preventing is from happening. This therefore shows that the debate is not just theoretical but is important as well.
What are ethical implications?
The consideration of the impact that psychological research has on the rights of other people in a wider context. Psychologists want recognition but they also want to preserve the rights od their participants and also their dignity
Give an example of a research study that has ethical implications
Milgram deceived his participants however this has been said to have no clear LT effects. Important overall
Give an example of theories that have ethical implications
The IWM contributed to the idea that women should stay at home
What is socially sensitive research?
Studies in which their are potential consequences or implications either directly for the ppts or for the group of people that they are involved in.
What should you look at when understanding research?
Research question
Methodology used
Insitutional context
Interpretation or application of findings
Evaluate ethical implications in research
One limitation is that it may be used for social control. In the 1920’s to 1970’s the US put many laws in to sterilise its citizens. These people were judged to be feeble minded and a drain on society i.e. lower intelligence. They were deemed as unfit to breed due to the worry of hereditary effects. This means that some research has led to discrimination
Evaluate ethical implications in research
One strength is that they can be useful. Studies of underrepresented groups can help to provide a greater understanding of them. It has benefitted society for example the unreliability of EWT has reduced the levels of miscarriages of justice. This suggests that research has played a valuable role.
Evaluate ethical implications in research
A limitation is that costs are benefits were difficult to predict. It may be hard to know what is going to happen and whether or not their ethical committe is going to like it. However some social consequences can be difficult to anticipate. The real impact of research is only made known once it is public
