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Relationships Flashcards

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1
Q

Male investment in relationships

A
  • Relatively small
  • Unlimited amounts of sperms, remain fertile throughout life
  • Capable of impregnating any number of females
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2
Q

Female investment in relationships

A
  • Substantial
  • Limited supply of eggs
  • Only produce one a month
  • Reproductive life of 30 years
  • After conception investment continues, carries foetus
  • Endure pain of childbirth
  • Breastfeed for 2 years
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3
Q

Evolutionary Explanation-Sexual selection (AO1)

A

Sexual selection-Darwin, evolution driven by competition for mates
Development of characteristics that ensures reproductive success

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4
Q

Evolutionary Explanation- Anisogamy (AO1)

A
  • Difference in gametes
  • Lots of fertile men,little fertile women
  • Gives rise to differences in sexual selection
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5
Q

Evolutionary Explanations- Intrasexual Selection (AO1)

A
  • Members of same sex compete to gain access to opposite sex to pass on genes
  • Characteristics leading to success become widespread
  • Leads to male female dimorphism (men stronger as they have to compete)
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6
Q

Evolutionary Explanation- Intersexual Selection (AO1)

A
  • One sex chooses from available mates,usually female chooses
  • Males want fertility, women want resources
  • Possessing desirable traits increase chance of success
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7
Q

Evolutionary Explanation Evaluation

A
  • +Singh found cross cultural agreement on hip to waist ratio, 0.7 most attractive, link to ability to bear children for survival
  • +Evidence,analysis 900 personal ads ,42% of men wanted younger women,44% of men wanted attractiveness,22% of women wanted attractiveness,men highlighted economic status, women seek resources,males want reproductive signs
  • -Clark +Hatfield,asked strangers either to go out with them,go back to their house or have sex, 50% of both genders agreed to go out,75% of men agreed to sex,0% of women,free will in partner choice, not deterministic
  • -Gender bias,not relevant in today’s society,women more career orientated,don’t look for resources,theory doesn’t apply to modern society
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8
Q

Factors affecting attraction- Self disclosure (AO1)

A

Extent which someone reveals personal information

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9
Q

Factors affecting attraction- Social penetration theory (AO1)

A
  • Self-disclosure,start of relationship topics range,as it develops share personal info,
    Sharing too soon before other person has reached same level of investment cause incompatibility
  • Reciprocity,if one shares more than other is willing too, breakdown of trust,one more invested
    Altman and Taylor
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10
Q

Factors affecting attraction evaluation

A
  • +Research,Sprecher,one took turns to self-disclose,other self-disclosed when liked, closeness,enjoyment measured, correlation between statisfasion and self-disclosure
  • Aron,list of questions to pairs, starts superficial info gets more intimate,people grew closure
    –>Research correlational,casual relationship not determined,may be attraction leads to greater self disclosure
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11
Q

Physical attraction (AO1)

A
  • Men place greater emphasises on physical attraction
  • Shacklefield+Larson suggest that symmetrical faces are more attractive,indicate fitness
  • Neotenous faces (baby faces), more attractive to men,trigger protective instinct,insures protection for her and offspring
  • Mcnulty,initial reaction that brought coupled together still important several years after
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12
Q

Physical Attraction- Matching Hypothesis (AO1)

A

Walster argues we start relationships with people who are a similar attractiveness level
More socially desirable,the more desirable they expect partners to be
Matched couples more likely to be happy than mismatched couples

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13
Q

Physical Attraction- Matching Hypothesis method (AO1)

A

Walster randomly selected pp took part in computer dance
Pp rated on attractiveness and did questionnaire on personality, told it was used to allocate partner, actually random
Halfway,pp did questionnaire on date and did one 6 months later
Responded positively to attractive dates,regardless of personal attractiveness
Doesn’t support matching hypothesis,pp didn’t consider own attractiveness

Replicated computer dance,pp picked eachother,reflected every day life,findings supported matching hypothesis,pp preferred someone who matched own perceived attractiveness

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14
Q

Physical Attractiveness Evaluation

A
  • +Attractivness consistent across cultures,Cunninghan features of large eyes,small nose attractive, Korean and Americans judged attractiveness as trustworthy, stereotypes in collectivist and individualist cultures
  • -Towhey asked men and women to rate liking of photos,pp did questionnaire which measure sexist attitudes, high scorers influenced by attractiveness when judging likeability,effects of attractiveness moderated by other factors
  • -Taylor studied activity logs of dating site,real life test if matching hypothesis,measured actual date choices,preferred more attractive people than them didn’t consider own attractiveness
  • -men place importance on attractiveness,pressure on women to maintain looks, attraction not only predictor,both genders desire supportive partners, less attractive women with these qualities don’t have less satisfied partners
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15
Q

Formation-Filter Theory (AO1)

A
  • Filter 1- Social/demographic variable,liklihood of people meeting,more in common
  • Filter 2- Similarity of views and attitudes,predictor of stable relationship,disclosure essential
  • Filter 3- Complementarity, complement eachothers emotional needs,spouse has traits the other lacks

When selecting partners from a range that’s available,use filters to narrow down choices

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16
Q

Formation-Filter Theory Evaluation

A
  • +Kerkoff+Davis,longitudinal study of student couples,been together for more or less than 18 months,questionnaire over 7 months,attitudes Similarity important up to 18 months,after meeting psychological needs more important
  • -Lacks temporal validity,modern society more interconnected than 1960,social demography less of a barrier,some stages less relevent
    –>Support,many studies failed to replicate studies findings,may be due to mythological issues
  • -2nd and 3rd levels correction can’t explain causality, Davis + Rusbult,people become more similar the more time spent together,relationships lead to alignment of attitudes
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17
Q

Social Exchange Theory (AO1)

A

Thibaut+Kelley,economic theory, relationships run like a business, series of exchanges
Maximise rewards,limit cost to make profits

18
Q

Social Exchange Theory- CL (AO1)

A

CL-Comaprison level, compare past relationships and our expectation of current relationships, determine what reward we deserve
People’s CL’s differ,Low CL will be satisfied gaining a small profit or loss

19
Q

Social Exchange Theory-CLA (AO1)

A

CLA-Comparison level with alternatives,compare current relationship with other available alternatives

20
Q

Social Exchange Theory- Opportunity Cost

A

Opportunity Cost-Loss of alternatives,Less time with friends

21
Q

Social Exchange Theory- Stages of relationship development (AO1)

A

Sampling-Exploring concepts of profit through experiences
Bargaining-Partners exchange and negotiate rewards
Commitment-Rewards and costs more predictable
Institutionalisation-Setting of norms of a relationship

22
Q

Social Exchange Theory Evaluation

A
  • +Research,Kurdek+Schmitt,gave couples questionnaire,complete without talking,lived together without kids,satisfied couples perceived many benefits and alternatives seen as less attractive,SET predicts satisfaction in heterosexual and same sex couples
  • -Romantic relationships don’t count costs and profits continuously these are communal relationships,SET describes other relationships
  • -Suggests we experience dissatisfaction when cost outweigh rewards,not constantly monitoring profits,don’t pay attention until after we feel dissatisfied,doesn’t explain cause of breakdown just a synptom
23
Q

Equity Theory (AO1)

A

Walster proposed the distribution of costs and profits the same for both partners
Strive to achieve fairness, distress if they perceive unfairness
- overbenefited feel guilty
- underbenefited angry, resentful

24
Q

Equity Theory - restoring equity (AO1)

A

Greater the dissatisfaction, more chance they’ll do something
Motivated to leave or restore equity
Hatfield and Rapson equity restored in 3 ways
- Restore actual equity
- Restore psychological equity
- Leave

25
Q

Equity Theory Evaluation

A
  • +Utne,recently married couples,self report scale, aged between 16-45 married for 2 years,most satisfied couples considered relationship equitable less satisfied couples felt underbenefited
  • -Problem with cause and effect, dissatisfaction may he cause not consequence of inequity
  • —> married couples studied, dissatisfaction in inequity increased over time
  • -Individual differences in perception of equity, some less sensitive to inequity and are prepared to give more, entitled believe they deserve over benefit and don’t feel guilty
26
Q

Investment Theory (AO1)

A
  • Satisfaction level-degree of positive vs negative,emotions experienced in relationship
  • Investment size-Stability of relationship,resources put into relationship
  • Camparison with alternatives-High satisfaction, increasing investment and poor alternatives leads to commitment
27
Q

Investment Theory- Investment size (AO1)

A

Measure all resources put into relationship,may be lost if it ends
Intrinsic Investement- resources we put directly into relationship
Extrinsic Investment-Resources that weren’t part of relationship but have come apart of it

28
Q

Investment Theory Evaluation

A
  • +Le and Agnew,meta analysis of 52 studies,found satisfaction, comparison with alternatives and investment contributed to commitment
  • +Rasbult and Martz,women more likely to return to abusive partner if there was investment and didn’t have appealing alternatives,theory applied to range of relationships that SET and equity don’t explain
  • -Correlational, can’t conclude investment causes commitment, limits predictive validity, less scientific
  • -Evidence from interviews and questionnaires, Subjective, unreliable, depends on people’s perception, Subjective, most appropriate method
29
Q

Ducks Phase Model of Relationship Breakdown (AO1)

A

Before each phase is a threshold, a point a couple has to meet

  • Intrapsychic Phase-One half of couple recognise problem, doesn’t reveal to other half
  • Dyadic Phase-Unhappiness out in the open,discussion begins
  • Social Phase- Problems aired publicly,break up reached point of no return,partners unfairly criticise eachother
  • Grave-dressing Phase-After separation,partners try get story across in positive light,story preparing,tidying up memories
30
Q

Ducks Phase Model Evaluation

A
  • +Helps understand stages of breakdown, ways to reverse it,repair strategies more effective at different points,intrapsychic phase encourages to focus on positive aspects
  • -Methological issues,research retrospective,experiments given after breakdown,consistency, harder to recall,views can change
  • -Doesn’t explain why only how, Felmess’s fatal attraction hypothesis,breakdown due to attractive qualities that brought partners together,too much
  • -Culture bias,research in Western cultures,relationships in individualists voluntary, frequently end,in collectivist likely obligatory,conception of relationships differ in cultures
31
Q

Virtual relationships - Self disclosure (AO1)

A

Jourard termed sharing info in situations as broadcasting disclosure,present edited version, selective in presentation

Disclose more personal info sooner in virtual relationships, feel more secure due to increase control over disclosure to a selected person
Anomymity- Reduced risk of info being leaked to friends

32
Q

Virtual Relationships- Hyperpersonal Model (AO1)

A

Online relationships more personal,greater disclosure
Walther suggested that we become more personal at a rapid speed
Also end quickly as high levels of excitement doesn’t match levels of trust (boom and bust)

33
Q

Virtual Relationships- Reduced Cue Theory (AO1)

A

Virtual Relationships less effective than face to face
Lack cues found in ftf interactions, reduce sense of indivual identity leads to disinhibiton
Communicate in aggressive blunt ways,discourage others to open up

34
Q

Virtual Relationships- Absence of Gating (AO1)

A

Face to Face-Social anxiety reply less,not anonymous,disclose less,fear of info leaks,communication barrier (accents)
less interested in talking if they’re not attractive

Online Relationships-No social anxiety,time to prepare answer,anonymous,no risk of info leaks,no communication barrier, texts easy to read,less emphasis on looks

35
Q

Virtual Relationships Evaluation

A
  • +Anonymity support,Rubin, stranger on a train study,when a stranger disclosed info,likely met with reciprocal disclosure, Internet allows anonymity
  • +Postitve impact on developing relationships,4000 pp,71% with Internet access in relationship, 36% without Internet in relationship,virtual environments help establish relationships
  • -Virtual Relationships decrease disclosure not increase,lacks subtle cues like facial expressions lead to deindividuation,people don’t want to disclose to blunt people
    –>Tidwell+Walther argue that virtual relationships also have subtle cues,like time taken to respond,emoji,cues not absent just different
36
Q

Parasocial Relationships (AO1)

A

Relationship resembling a normal one but is one sided and unreciprocal

  • Entertainement Social- Celebs viewed as sources of entertainment,fuel for social interaction,talk about it
  • Intense Personal-Personal involvement,obsessive thoughts, intense feelings,consider celeb as soul mate
  • Borderline Pathological- Uncontrolable fantasies,extreme behaviours,spend loads on celeb object or perform illegal act
37
Q

Attachment theory of parasocial relationships

A

Weiss
Insecure-resistant more likely to form parasocial relationships to fulfill unmet needs
Risk of rejection avoided
Insecure-avoidance avoid all types of relationships

38
Q

Attachment Theory Steps (AO1)

A

Proxminity Seeking-keep well informed,reschedule events to see them on TV and in real life
Secure Base-Use relationship as safe base to explore world, little chance of rejection,feel safe
Protest at Disruption-Like child separated form attachment figure,become distressed

39
Q

The Absorption Addiction Model of Parasocial Relationships (AO1)

A

McCutcheon, reason of parasocial relationships is to fulfill a deficiency, allows them to escape reality, attain what they can’t in real life
Entertainment social may be triggered into more intense relationship by stress

40
Q

Absorption Addiction Model - Absorption (AO1)

A

Effortless focusing of attention
Fans believe they have a special relationship with celeb
Motivated to find out more about them
Parasocial Relationships established through absorption

41
Q

Absorption Addiction Model- Addiction (AO1)

A

Need to sustain commitment to a celeb relationship by feeling a stronger involvement with them
Lead to extreme behaviours and delusional thinking
Parasocial relationships maintained by Addiction

42
Q

Parasocial Relationships Evaluation

A
  • +Level support,research,CAS uses to measure level of PR, assessed pp problems in relationship,intense personal had high anxiety,entertainment social didn’t,PR can be categorised
  • +AAM support,defiency predisposes to PR,girls reported intense personal relationships with celebs with body shape they admired,had poor body image, supports prediction of poor psychological functioning and PR
  • +Universal,compared collectivist and individualist,insecure resistant likely to form PR in both, driver of PR independent of cultural differences
  • -Other evidence not supportive, measures attachment types and celeb attitudes,attachment security doesn’t affect liklihood of PR,insecure resistant no more likely to form PR,not a way of compensating for attachment issues

Psychology (7 decks)

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