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Forensic Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

Offender Profiling

A

An investigative tool used by police when solving crimes to narrow down list of suspects

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2
Q

Top-down Approach Stages

A

Profiling Inputs - Description of crime scene, photos, victim information, details of crime
Decision making process - Organise date into patterns, murder type, time, location
Crime Assessment - Based on data collection, classified as organised or disorganised
Criminal Profile - Profile made including hypothesis of background,habits, anticipate offenders next move
Crime Assessment - Written report to investigating agency, people matching Profile identified
Apprehension - Suspect apprehended,entire process reviewed to check conclusions are legitimate

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3
Q

The Top-Down Approach

A

Profilers collect data about a crime and then assign it to one of two categories
Organised or disorganised crime

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4
Q

Organised Crimes

A
  • Plan in advance
  • Target victim deliberately
  • Controlled
  • Left little evidence at crime scene
  • Above average intelligence
  • Skilled profession
  • Socially and sexually competent
  • Married may have kids
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5
Q

Disorganised Crime

A
  • Little evidence of planning
  • Spontaneous
  • Rejects crime scene
  • Lower than average intelligence
  • Unskilled profession, unemployed
  • Failed relationships
  • May live alone
  • Often live close to location of crime
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6
Q

Top-Down Approach Evaluation

A
  • +Research support for organised category of offender, Canter, smallest space analysis of murders by different serial killers,statistical test, identifies correlations across samples of behaviour,occurance of aspects like hiding body, cause of death, many serial killings matched organised offenders, top down approach has validity
  • –> Studies suggest organised and disorganised crime not mutually exclusive, variety of combinations, Godwin argues difficult to classify killers as a type, contrasting characteristics, organised and disorganised types more of a continuum
  • +Wider application,adapted to other crimes like burglary, 85% rise in solved cases in 3 US states, detection method has organised disorganised distinction, adds interpersonal and opportunistic
  • -Flawed evidence,FBI profiling developed by using interviews with 36 murderers, 24 organised, 12 disorganised, sample was poor, nor random or large,didn’t include different types of offenders,no standard set of questions, no scientific basis
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7
Q

The bottom-up Approach

A

Profilers work up from collected evidence from crime scene to develop hypotheses about likely characteristics, motivations and social background
More scientific than top-down

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8
Q

The bottom-up Approach Stages

A

Investigative Psychology- Canter, profiling, apply statistical procedures and psychological theory to crime analysis, establish behaviour patterns
Interpersonal Coherence- Consistant in behaviours, find similarities in crime behaviour and interaction with victims
Forensic Awareness- behaviours reveal awareness of police procedures, those aware more mindful about covering tracks, Davis, rapists who concealed fingerprints had previous burglary convictions
Smallest space analysis- Canter, statistical technique, data used to identify probable location and behaviour patterns

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9
Q

Geographical profiling

A

Uses information about location of linked crimes to make inferences about the likely home of offender
Crime mapping based on spatial consistency, people commit crimes within limited geographical space

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10
Q

Geographical Profiling - Circle Theory

A

Canter + Larkin
Most offenders commit crime within imagined circle
The marauder- Offenders home within geographical area of crimes
The Communter- Offenders travel to another area, circle can be drawn

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11
Q

The Bottom-up Apporach Evaluation

A
  • +Research, Canter + Heritage analysed 66 sexual assaults with smallest space analysis, common behaviours like lack of reaction, patterns of behaviour,establish if offences done by same person, supports Investigative Psychology
  • –> Case Linkage depends on database, only solved historical crimes, may be straightforward to link crimes, Investigative Psychology tells us little about crimes with few links
  • +Support for geographical profiling, Lundrigan + Canter got info from 120 US murders, smallest space analysis, spatial consistency in behaviour in body disposal, circular effect around home, noticeable in marauders
  • -Geographical profiling not sufficient, success relies on quality of police data, recording crime not always accurate, 75% not reported, geographical info alone won’t always lead to capture
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12
Q

Biological Explanation - Historical Approach

A

Lombroso believed criminals failed to evolve at the same pace due to their untamed nature, unable to adjust to demands of society,turn to crime
Gathered info from post- mortems of dead criminals and living criminals, 383 convicted Italians, 21% had 1 feature, 43% had at least 5
Atravistic form inherited, interacted with physical and social environment

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13
Q

Atravistic Features

A

Bloodshot eyes, curly hair, long ears = Muderers
Glinting eyes, fleshy lips, projecting ears = Sexual deviants
Thin reedy lips = fraudsters

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14
Q

Lombroso Views on Women

A

Has androcentric ideas even though he never studied women directly
Believed women were less evolved then men
Passive, low in intelligence and maternal instinct which neutralised negative traits so less likely to be criminals
Those who were criminals has masculine characteristics, beneficial in a man but created a monster in women

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15
Q

Historical Approach Evaluation

A
  • +Changed study of crime shifted emphasis away from moralistic discourse towards scientific position,describe how certain people commit certain crimes,theory began criminal profiling, major contribution to criminology
  • -Legacy not positive, racist undertones in Lombrosos work, atravistic features included curly hair and dark skin, found in African people, suggested more likely to be offenders,fitted 19th century eugenic attitudes,aspects of theory Subjective, influenced by racial prejudice
  • -Contradicting evidence,Goring, whether offenders physically atypical, compared 3000 offenders and 3000 non offenders,no evidence that offenders have unusual facial features, challenges idea that offenders can be physically distinguished, unlikely a subspecies
  • -Method poorly controlled,failed to control important variables, Goring didn’t compare offenders sample with non offender control group, controlled confounding variables that may explain higher crime rates in certain groups, Lombrosos research doesn’t meet modern scientific standards
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16
Q

Biological Explanation - Genetic Twin Studies

A

Propose one or more genes individuals inherit predisposes them to criminality
Compare difference between DZ twins (share 50% of genes) and MZ twins (share 100%) and 100% of the same environment
If behaviour caused by genes, MZ twins more similar than DZ, 100% concordance rate for MZ, 50% DZ

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17
Q

Twin Studies Research

A

Christiansen 3500 twins in Denmark, concordance rate for offenders, 35% MZ, 16% DZ

Crowe found adopted children with mother with criminal record, 50% risk of having criminal record by 18, adopted children with non criminal mother 5% risk

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18
Q

Biological Explanation - Genetic Candidate Genes

A

MAOA controls dopamine and serotonin production, linked to increased aggression
CDH13 linked with substance abuse and ADD, linked to criminality

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19
Q

Candidate Genes Research

A

Brunner studies 28 member of Dutch family who had violent criminal behaviours, men shared gene that led to low MAOA levels

Finland study, analysed genes of 900 criminals, combination of MAOA and CDH13 meant offenders 13x more likely to have violent past, 5-10% of violent crime attributed to MAOA and CDH13 genotypes

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20
Q

Neural Explanation - Brain Regions

A

The brain of criminals different to non criminals
More likely to have head injury, 8.5% of population had head injury, 80% of prison population

71 studies show evidence that violent individuals have reduced activity in prefrontal cortex, controls moral behaviour, linked to impulsiveness

Raine used 41 murderers not guilty due to insanity and compared to normal people, 6 were schizophrenic, 23 had head injuries, showed asymmetry in limbic system in amygdala, activity reduced in left, increased on right

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21
Q

Neural Explanations - Neurotransmitters

A

Seo suggested low serotonin levels make individuals impulsive and aggressive,inhibits prefrontal cortex, dopamine hyperactivity

Both high and low levels of noradrenaline associated with aggression and criminality, high noradrenaline levels activates fight or flight

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22
Q

Biological Explanations Evaluation

A
  • +Adoption studies, Crowe, kids with criminal biological mother, 50% risk of having criminal record by 18, 5% risk with no criminal parent, Mednick, 15% criminals when adopted by criminal family, 20% biological criminal parents, inherited genes more significant
  • -Correlation between head injuries and criminality, spurious relationship, violent households more likely to suffer head injuries, head injury link to offending may be due to violent childhood
  • -Criminality is complex, reduces behaviour to genetic or neural level,reductionist,simplistic, emotional instability and mental illness also runs in families, difficult to disentangle effects of genes and neural influences from other factors
  • -Findley, crime not natural category of behaviour, social construction, people created category of criminal behaviour, hard to argue that bevhour is due to genes and its interaction with the environment
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23
Q

Psychological Explanation - Eysencks Theory

A

Theory of personality,believed character traits cluster along 3 dimensions
Eysenck personality questionnaire (EPQ)
Extraversion - Introversion - Extraverts outgoing, impulsive
Neuroticism - Stability - Neuroticism tendency to experience more negative emotional states than positive
Psychoticism - Normality - Psychotic people are egocentric, aggressive, lack empathy

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24
Q

Biological Basis of Each Trait

A

Extravert - Underactive nervous system, constantly seek excitement, more likely to engage in dangerous activities
Neurotic - Nervous, over anxious, fight or flight easily triggered, unstable, overreact to situations of threat
Psychoticism - Related to high levels of testostrone, men more likely to be at end of spectrum, aggressive and lack empathy

25
Q

The Role of Socialisation

A

Eysenck believed in biological underpinning to personality and socialisation played significant role
High Extraversion and Neuroticism more difficult to condition, likely to respond to opportunities to offend in a antisocial manner, don’t response as well to punishment

26
Q

Eysencks Theory Evaluation

A
  • +Research support,Eysenck compared 2070 male prisoners scores on EPQ,groups subdivided, scored higher on Extraversion, Neuroticism and psychoticism then control
  • –>Farrington reviewed studies, offenders scored high on psychotisicm not extravertism and Neuroticism,little consistent evidence of differences in ECG between extraverts and introverts doubts physiological basis
  • -Bartol + Helanchock studied Hispanic and African American offenders in prison, divided into 6 groups based on criminal history and offence, all groups less extraverted then control, culturally biased,not generalisable
  • Research support doesn’t look at uncaught criminals,researchers only compare convicted criminals to population,only tell us about unsuccessful criminals, those who aren’t caught may have different personality traits
27
Q

Cognitive Explanation - Moral Development

A
  • Kohlberg, people’s decisions on what’s right and wrong summarised in a stage of moral reasoning
  • Based on interviews with men presented with moral dilemmas and the reasoning behind judgements
  • Offenders show lower level of moral reasoning, pre - conventional, child like reasoning, accept rules of authority, judge actions by consequences
  • Non-criminals conventional level
28
Q

Levels of Moral Reasoning

A

Pre-Conventional- Children accept rules of authority, judge actions by consequences, child like reasoning
Conventional- Conformity to rules desirable,not for self interest but the good of others, maintain social order
Post-Conventional- Abstract level, not concerned with complying to norms,questioning motives and rules

29
Q

Cognitive Explanation Evaluation

A
  • +Research support,Palmer + Hollin,compared moral reasoning in 332 non offenders and 126 convicted offenders using socio moral reflection containing 11 moral dilemmas,offenders showed less mature moral reasoning
  • -Level of moral reasoning depends of offence, Thornton + Reld,people committing financial crimes likely to have pre-conventional moral reasoning than impulsive crime, pre-conventional associated with crimes offenders believed they could evade punishment, doesn’t apply to all forms of crime
30
Q

Cognitive Explanation - Cognitive Distortions

A

Errors in information processing leads to faulty thinking, reality changed by thought processes perceived as truth
Hostile Atrribution Bias- misinterpret ambiguous actions of others as aggressive
Minimalisation- Attempt to deny seriousness of offending behaviour,reduces negative interpretations criminal has towards crime, common in sexual offenders

31
Q

Cognitive Distortions Evaluation

A
  • +Real world application to therapy, CBT aims to challenge irrational thinking in offending behaviour, encourages to face up to what they’ve done, establish less distorted view, reduced incidence of minimialisation in therapy reduces risk of reoffending, practical value
  • -Level of cognitive distortions depends on type of offenders, Howett + Sheldon questionnaire, non contact sexual offenders used more cognitive distortions than contact sex offenders, previous history of offending more likely to use distortions as justification, distortions not used in same way
32
Q

Psychological Explanation - Differential Association Theory

A
  • Sutherland created set of scientific principles that explains all type of offending
  • Crime is learned behaviour
  • Individuals learn attitudes and techniques through association with different people which are pro-crime or anti-crime
  • Mathematically predict liklihood an individual will commit crime by using the frequency, intensity and duration of exposure
  • If pro-crime attitudes outweigh anti-crime, they will offenders
  • Explain high reoffending rates, inmates transfer new skill to eachother, practised on release
33
Q

Differential Association Theory Evaluation

A
  • +Shift focus of offending explanations,emphasis away from biological accounts (atavistic theory),draws attention to social circumstances and environments to blame, approach more desirable,realistic solution to offending
  • –>Stereotypes individuals from impoverished, crime backgrounds as unavoidably offenders, theory suggests exposure to pro-crime sufficient to produce offending, ignores people choosing not to offend
  • +Accounts for offending in all sectors of society,recognised some offences like burglary clustered in working class,some clustered in affluent groups like white collar crime who share deviant norms,not just lower classes commiting offences, principles explain all offences
  • -Difficult to test predictions of differential association,aimed to provide scientific framework which future offending could be predicted,concepts not testable,can’t be operationalised, hard to see number of pro-crime attitudes a person has,built on assumption offending occurs when pro-crime values outnumber anti-crime, can’t know at what point urge to offend is triggered,no scientific credibility
34
Q

Psychodynamic Approach

A
  • If ego fails to balance demands of ID and superego,conflicts and psychological disorders arise
  • Dominance of ID impulsive lead to destructive tendencies and unihbited sexual behaviour
  • If superego dominates, individual may be unable to experience pleasurable gratification
  • Supported by Bowlbys 44 thrives study,44 adolescents caught stealing,interviewed child and mother,14 affectionless psychopaths,12/14 had prolonged separation from mum
35
Q

Psychodynamic Approach - Super ego

A

Weak Super-ego- Same gender parent absent in phallic stage,can’t internalise fully formed superego, no opportunity for identification
Deviant Superego- Child internalised immoral values, leads to offending,develop morality based on actions,fails to react with anxiety to criminal acts
Over-harsh Superego - Harsh parenting style leads to over harsh Superego,feelings of crippling guilt and anxiety, perform criminal acts to satisfy Superegos need for punishment

36
Q

Psychodynamic Approach Evaluation

A
  • -Assumes girls have a weaker superego, haven’t had castration anxiety, under less pressure yo identify with mother, should have more women offenders,less women in prison than men
  • -Freuds theory unfalsifiable, can’t be supported or disproved, superego not physical,Subjective, can’t be supported, pseudoscience,testing impossible
  • -Little evidence that kids raised without same sex parent less law abiding, contradicts Freuds claim, believes kids can’t identify with opposite sex parent
  • -44 thieves study,researcher bias, Bowlby was researcher, questions reliability, retrospective had to recall,may be errors,small sample, juvenile petty crime, can’t explain most crime in real offenders
37
Q

Dealing with Offending - Custodial Sentencing

A

Involves a convicted offender spending tike in prison or another closed institution
Deterrence
Incapacitation
Punishment and preventing recidivism
Retribution
Rehabilitation

38
Q

Deterrence

A

Unpleasant prison experiences discourage offending
Sends message to society that crime is not tolerant (general deterrence)
Prevents criminals reoffending through conditioning (individual deterrence)

39
Q

Incapacitation

A

Offenders taken away from society for public safety
Need for incapacitation varies on nature and offence

40
Q

Punishment and Preventing Recidivism

A

Behavioural principle that punishment prevents liklihood of behaviour reoccurring

41
Q

Retribution

A

Society enacts revenge
Biblical principle, eye for an eye
See prisons as best form of retribution

42
Q

Rehabilitation

A

Researchers believe purposeof prisons is to reform
Offenders leaving prison should integrate as functioning member of society
Prisons provide training and therapy

43
Q

Psychological effects of custodial sentencing

A
  • De-individualisation- Perceived loss of individuality and personal responsibility
  • Stress and Depression- Suicide rates 15x higher in prison, stress in prison increases chances of mental health issues post prison,23% of men diagnosed with depression or anxiety
  • Institutionalisation-Adopted to norms of prison, struggle to function in society, inmates socialised into adopting inmate code,behaviour may be rewarded in prison but not helpful to readjusting to real world
44
Q

Recidivism

A

Re-offending
Prisons not effective as deterrent
49% reoffend within a year
61% if sentence under 12 months
Difficult to obtain recidivism rates as not all offenders caught

45
Q

Custodial Sentencing Evaluation

A
  • -Bartol,prison brutal and demeaning,suicide rates 15x higher, young single men at risk,oppressive prison regime may trigger psychological disorders in vulnerable people, custodial Sentencing not effective in rehabilitating vulnerable individuals
  • -Time in prison psychologically challenging,not all offenders react in same way,different prisons have different regimes,wide variations in experience,many have pre-existing psychological difficulties at time convicted, difficult to generalise to every prisoner
  • Government exaggerates positive effect of prisons appear tough on crime,Judge Davis + Raymond concluded prisons little to deter others or rehabilitate offenders, alternatives like community service mean family contacts and employment maintained, more effective method to rehabilitate
  • -Sutherland,Prisons may enable criminals to exchange knowledge and skills, learn how to commit crime,high recidivism rates, hardened criminals give younger inmates opportunity to learn, undermine attempt to rehabilitate
46
Q

Dealing with Offedending - Behaviour Modification

A

Behaviourist approach, behaviour is leant,assumes it can be unlearnt, programmes reinforce obedient behaviour, punish disobedience
Disobedience eventually extinct

47
Q

Token Economy

A

Operant conditioning, increase desirable behaviour
Each time there’s desirable behaviour, token given
Disobedience removes token
Tokens not themselves rewarding drive value from reward (secondary reinforcer)
Token exchanged for reward (primary reinforcer)

48
Q

How to use a token economy

A
  • Operationalise target behaviour, behaviours objective, observable and measurable
  • Create scoring system, all staff aware how much behaviour worth
  • Train staff, give full training to implement successfully, standardise procedures, staff rewarding behaviours same way
49
Q

Behaviour Modification Evaluation

A
  • +Research, Hobbs + Holt did token economy on young offenders, significant difference in positive behaviour to control, effective, some did not respond, token economy’s work
  • –>Success depends on consistent approach from staff, Bassett + Blanchard found benefits lost if inconstant, due to lack of training, must be consistent
  • +Straightforward to set up, administered with ease, don’t need specialist like anger management, implemented by anyone, cost effective
  • -Doesn’t affect long term behaviour, little rehabilitative value, positive changes in prison lost when released, anger management leads to more permanent change, play along with token economy, explains recidivism rates
50
Q

Dealing with offending - Anger Management

A

Novaco suggests cognitive factors trigger emotional arousal, some produce anger in anxious situations
Type of CBT, method based on SIT

51
Q

Stages to Anger Management

A

**Cognitive Preparation

52
Q

Anger management on young offenders

A

Keen studied progress of offenders between 17 and 21, did anger management,8 two hour sessions, first 7 in 3 weeks, last one month after
At first didn’t take course seriously, final outcomes positive, increased awareness of their anger management

53
Q

Anger management Evaluation

A
  • +Benefits outlast behaviour modification, tackles cause of offending, cognitive processes that triggers anger, give insight into cause of criminality, self discover ways of managing
  • –>Follow up studies, not supportive, Blackburn, noticeable effect on offenders conduct short term, little evidence it reduces recidivism, application relies on role play, doesn’t reflect real life
  • -Individual differences, Howells did investigation, found anger management had little impact compared to control, progress with intense anger who were open to change, only benefit certain offenders
  • -Expensive, require trained specialists with violent offenders, prisons don’t have resources, change takes time, anger management doesn’t work for most prisons
54
Q

Restorative Justice

A

Switch emphasis from needs of the state to the needs of the individual
Braithwaite said crime hurts, justice heals

55
Q

Features of restorative justice

A
  • Trained Mediator supervises
  • Non courtroom setting
  • Face to face or video link
  • Survivor has opportunity to confront offender
  • Active not passive
  • Positive outcomes for survivor and offender
56
Q

Restorative justice variations

A

Offender may make financial payment as compensation
May reflect cist of physical damage or psychological harm caused

57
Q

Restorative justice Council

A

Aims to standardised use of restorative justice practice supporting victims
Implementer restorative justice in schools, social services, hospitals and workplaces

58
Q

Restorative justice Evaluation

A
  • +Positive outcomes, 7 yeah research, 85% of survivors reported satisfaction, 78% would recommend to others, 60% made them feel better about incident, help survivors cope
  • –>Not all research positive, Wood + Suzuki not survivor focused, distorted, survivors used to rehabilitate offenders, rather then helped, need of survivors secondary
  • +Decrease in recidivism rates, Strang meta analysis of restorative justice and custodial Sentencing, restorative justice less likely to reoffend, reduction larger in violent crime
  • -Offenders may abuse the system, success relies on offenders being honorable, take part to make amends, may use it to avoid punishment and play down faults, explains why not all offenders benefit

Psychology (7 decks)

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