Relationships

Question 1

Define sexual selection

Answer 1

An evoloutionary explanation of partner preference. It gives an insight into those with specific attributes and behaviours increase reproductive success. They have more opportunities to reproduce and increase the survival of their genes

Question 2

Anisogamy *

Answer 2

Differences between male and female sex cells.
There are lots of fertile men and fewer fertile females.

Question 3

Define Intra-sexual selection

Answer 3

Males looking for quantity over quality

Question 4

Explain intra-sexual selection *

Answer 4

A competition between males to be selected to mate with a female. The winner gets to reproduce and the genes/characteristics which allowed him to win are then passed on.

Question 5

Define Inter-sexual selection

Answer 5

Women looking for quality over quantity

Question 6

Explain Inter-sexual selection *

Answer 6

Females are more picky when finding a male to reproduce with. They need a male who can provide healthy offspring and support them with resources. Consequences for choosing the wrong partner are greater for a female

Question 7

Evolutionary explanation A03: Clark and Hatfield

Answer 7

Strength: A male and female confederate went around the university campus. They approached students of the opposing gender and said “I’ve been noticing you around campus, I find you very attractive. Will you go to bed with me tonight”
75% of males agreed to sleep with a female they’d never met before whereas none of the females agreed to sleep with the male they had never seen before.

Question 8

Evolutionary explanation A03: Bereczkei et al

Answer 8

Limitation: Women’s greater roles in the workplace means that they are no longer reliant on males to provide for them. He argues that this social change has consequences for female mating preferences, which may no longer be resource orientated. Suggesting that women may only depend on men if they cannot provide for themselves.

Question 9

Evolutionary explanation A03: Buss

Answer 9

Strength: Universal support
10000 people from 37 cultures. Ppts were to rate 18 characteristics on how important they are in choosing a mate (using a scale from 0-3).
They desired men who were ‘good financial prospects’ - men with resources/qualities
Men placed more importance on physical attractiveness - cues to her health hence her fertility and reproductive value.
Youth: Men wanted younger females - more fertile
Women wanted older males for more intelligence, maturity and high level of security

Question 10

Define physical attractiveness

Answer 10

This often refers to how appealing one’s face is

Question 11

Baby face theory

Answer 11

Neoteneous features are thought to trigger protective and caring instincts that subconsciously relate to the formation of attachments in infancy. We therefore end up being attracted to such features. (i.e. wide eyes)

Question 12

Matching hypothesis

Answer 12

This is the belief that we don’t select the most attractive person, instead we are attracted to the person who ‘matches’ our physical attractiveness. Implying we take our own attractiveness into account when seeking a romantic partner

Question 13

Halo Effect

Answer 13

physical attractiveness may metter because we have preconcieved ideas about the personality traits attractive people have. They are usually positive universally. (pretty girls are sweet)
Psychologists use this to show how one distinguishing feature can have a disproportionate influence on our jugdement of a persons other attributes (like their manners)

Question 14

Halo effect A03: Palmer and Peterson

Answer 14

+Found that physically attractive people were related as more politically knowledgeable and competent. The halo effect was so powerful that it persisted even when ppts knew that these ‘knowledgeable’ people had no particular expertise

Question 15

Baby face A03: Cunningham et al

Answer 15

+Found that females with features such as large eyes, a small nose and prominent cheekbone were rated as highly attractive by white, Asian and Hispanic males. This shows consistency across cultures showing a universal, evolutionary level of importance.

Question 16

Matching Hypothesis A03: Taylor et al

Answer 16

-Studied activity logs of a popular dating site. A real life test of the matching hypothesis. Online daters sought a more attractive partner than themselves. They didn’t take themselves into account when making dating decisions. This undermines the values of the MH

Question 17

Halo Effect A03: Meltzer et al

Answer 17

Found that men tend to rate their long term relationships better if their partner is physically attractive but women do not. This shows clear gender differences when it comes to physical attractiveness.

Question 18

Define Self-disclosure

Answer 18

Revealing personal information about yourself to romantic partners. The more they develop about their selves, their relationship develops

Question 19

[Self-disclosure] Social penetration theory - Altman and Taylor

Answer 19

The gradual process of revealing our inner-self to someone else. It involves the reciprocal exchange of information between romantic partners. It is a signal of trust, to go further the partner must also reveal sensitive info. As they increasingly disclose more, the romantic partners ‘penetrate’ more deeply into each others lives and gain a deeper understanding of each other.

Question 20

[Self-disclosure] Breadth and Depth

Answer 20

As both increase, the partners become more committed. Researchers use the metaphor of an onion to illustrate this. Initially we disclose a lot, mainly low-risk information.
As the relationship develops self-disclosure becomes progressively reveals our inner selves, like peeling an onion. We eventually reveal intimate and high risk info like secrets and painful experiences

Question 21

Reciprocity of self-disclosure - Reis and Shaver

Answer 21

For a relationship to develop, as well as an increase in breadth and depth there needs to be a reciprocal element. Once you have disclosed something, the partner needs to respond in an appropriate way.

Question 22

[Self-disclosure] A03: support

Answer 22

+ research support: Specher and Hendrick found strong correlations between several measures of satisfaction and self-disclosure in heterosexual relationships. Suggesting that men and women who had reciprocal self-disclosure in their relationships were more satisfied and committed. Supporting that S-D is a key component of successful relationships

+ real world application: Haas and Stafford found that 57% of homosexual males and females said that open and honest self-disclosure maintained and deepened relationships. Suggesting that S-D can improve and bring benefits like increased commitment and satisfaction. Showing that psychological insights can be valuable when having problems in their relationships.

Question 23

[Self-disclosure] A03: limitation

Answer 23

cultural differences: isn’t true that self-disclosure increases satisfaction in all cultures. Nu Tang et al reviewed research into sexual S-D. They concluded that men and women in the US S-D significantly more sexual thoughts and feelings than men and women in China. Despite lower levels of S-D in the collectivist cultures, there were no significant differences in the satisfaction. Therefore, this explanation because it is based on findings from individualistic cultures which cannot be generalised to other cultures

Question 24

Define filter theory

Answer 24

There are factors that act as filters to narrow down our range of partners choice to a field of desireables.

Kerckhoff and Davis compared attitudes and personalities of students in short-term and long term relationships.

Question 25

What are the 3 filters in the filter theory

Answer 25

1st filter: Social Demography
2nd filter: Similarity in attitudes
3rd filter: Complementarity

Question 26

1st filter: Social Demography

Answer 26

A wide range of filters which influence the chances of potential partners meeting. You are much more likely to meet people who are physically close to you and share demographic characteristics with and social circumstances.
- age, ethnicity, location

Question 27

2nd filter: Similarity in attitudes

Answer 27

They agree over basic beliefs and things that really matter to them. This encourages greater and deeper communication and promotes self-disclosure
- morals, habits, family orientated

Question 28

3rd filter: Complementarity

Answer 28

The ability of romantic partners to meet each other’s needs. They complement each other when they have traits that the other lacks. More important for long term couples as they feel like they are whole and more likely to flourish.
- cook/can’t cook, introvert/extrovert

Question 29

[Filter theory] A03

Answer 29

• problems with compementarity: Markey and Markey found that lesbian couples with equal dominance were most satisfied. Suggesting that similarity of needs should be associated with long term satisfaction rather than complimentarity.

social change: Filter theory claims that demographic factors reduce the field of available people. However, filters have changed over time. Dating apps have helped to increase the available field. Things like location no longer limits choices. Social changes have led to relationships that were less common 40 years ago. (ie interracial couples)

Question 30

Social Exchange Theory

Answer 30

Thibault and Kelley - each person aims to maximise their rewards and minimise their costs. Profitable relationships continue. The rewards-costs shows the satisfaction of the rs.

Question 31

According to the Social Exchange Theory, which 4 exchanges develop relationships

Answer 31

Sapling stage: The couple explores the rewards and costs in a variety of relationships (not just romantic ones) or observe others doing so
Bargaining: The couple negotiates the relationship and agrees rewards and costs. This marks the start of the relationship where partners begin to exchange.
Commitment: the couple settles into the relationship and the exchange of rewards becomes fairly predictable. Stability increases as rewards increase and costs decrease
Institutionalisation: norms and expectations are firmly established

Answer 32

Judgement of what we expect in our relationships are determined by relationships experiences and social norms.
- can be influenced by books, movies, social media

Answer 33

Do we believe we could gain more rewards and fewer costs from being in another relationship (or single). SET predicts that we will stay in our current relationship if we believe it is better/more rewarding than alternatives.

Answer 34

+ SET has been used in developing integrated behavioural couples therapy (ICBT). It involves teaching couples to replace negative exchanges with positive ones. This maximises profit and minimises costs. Many couples have received the therapy and reported feeling more satisfied. This demonstrates the useful practical application of the therapy. HE, the notion of people keeping a tally of costs and rewards has been critisised by Clark and Mill. They argue it is unlikely for the couple to log all the rewards and costs, especially at the start of the relationship.

+several studies have been conducted to provide support for SET. Kurdek and Schmitt found that relationship satisfaction was always reported higher when the patients perceived the benefits of their current relationship to outweigh the costs and if alternative rs’ were unappealing. Research was carried out on 185 heterosexual and homosexual couples. This demonstrates the importance in all types of relationships. HE, a critisism is the use of a questionnaire. The couples could be influenced by social desirability bias, not wanting to appear as being negative about thier partner, it lacks scientific rigour.

Answer 35

It can be argued that the SET takes a deterministic approach to romantic relationships. TIB, it states that individuals will leave a relationship if costs > rewards. The theory has been critisised for not being able to explain why individuals would stay in relationships where there is abuse. It is evident there is more costs, but many don’t leave. Therefore, the SET can’t explain all types of relationships.
Rusubult explains that these situations are better described by the investment model. It explains how women in abusive relationships stay because they don’t want to lose their investments in the relationship.

• Equity theory

Question 36

Equity theory [critisises SET]

Answer 36

Couple put less emphasis on profit and focus more on fairness.

Question 37

[Equity theory] Consequences of inequity

Answer 37

A partner who perceives inequity will become distressed and dissatisfied. The greater the inequity, the greater the dissatisfaction

Question 38

[Equity theory] Changes in perceived equity

Answer 38

A change in the level of perceived inequity overtime will make us more dissatisfied. (i.e. in the beginning it may feel normal to put in more effort than the other person, this can’t continue as time goes on)

Question 39

[Equity theory] Dealing with inequity

Answer 39

The under satisfied partner is usually more motivated to make the relationship more equitable as long as it is salvageable. The more unfair, the harder they’ll try. They will revise their perceptions of rewards and costs so the relationships feel more equitable to them - even if nothing changes.

Question 40

Equity theory A03 weaknesses

Answer 40

It could be argued that equity theory is reductionist to some extent as it attempts to explain the complex and unpredictable behaviours involved in relationship negotiation as a simple balancing act. Taking a holistic approach to understanding the fine details of a relationship would probably prove to be more insightful and meaningful.

Hussman et al. (1987) explored individual differences in equity by conducting an experiment where two participants were asked to distribute money to different employees based on information on their performance given to them. According to Hussman et al. (1987), some people are less sensitive to inequity and are willing to give more in relationships (known as benevolents). Meanwhile, others are happy to take more (known as entitleds) and don’t feel the guilt equity theory suggests they should.

Sprecher (1992) suggests women feel more guilty when over-benefitting and more dissatisfied when under-benefitting, suggesting gender differences exist in the applicability of equity theory.

Question 41

Equity theory A03 strengths

Answer 41

Utne et al. explored equity theory in intimate settings. They theorised that couples who believed the relationship was equitable would believe their marriages were more stable, and they would be more content. Using self-report scales they measured satisfaction and equity in 118 recently married couples. Each couple had already been together for at least two years before marriage, and the study reported that greater equity led to higher satisfaction.

Stafford and Canary studied relationship equity, maintenance, and satisfaction by giving over 200 married couples questionnaires. They found that partners who viewed their relationships as equitable were most satisfied, followed by those who over-benefitted. The least satisfied were those who felt they under-benefitted.

Question 42

Rusbult’s Investment Model

Answer 42

satisfaction and investment strengthen commitment, the commitment level will determine the future decision of staying or leaving.
commitment is weakened by the presence of alternatives
relationship maintenance mechanisms

Question 43

Investment Model: Relationship maintenance mechanisms

Answer 43

[positive illusions] unrealistically positive about partners
[willingness to sacrifice] putting partners interests first
forgiving partner for any wrongdoings

Question 44

Rusbult and Martz: abusive relationships

Answer 44

Applied the investment model to abusive relationships
They asked women living in refuges why they stayed with their abusive partner instead of leaving as soon as the abuse began.
As predicted by the model, women had felt the greatest commitment to their relationship when their investment was high and economic alternatives were low

Question 45

Investment Model A03

Answer 45

+ explains abusive relationships
+ research support meta-analysis by Agnew and Le: reviewed 52 studies of 11,000 across 5 countries. satisfaction, CLFA and investment size all predicted commitment. Relationships in which commitment was greatest, were longest lasting and strongest. True for heterosexual and homosexual couples across cultures. Validates findings
- oversimplifies investment

Question 46

Duck’s phase model of relationship breakdown

Answer 46

A process that takes time and goes through 4 distinct phases. Each phase is marked by one or both partners reaching a threshold, a point where the perception of their relationship changes. The road to a breakup begins when the partner realises they are dissatisfied

Question 47

4 stages of Duck’s Phase Model

Answer 47

Intra-psychic - “I can’t stand this anymore” The focus is on the cognitive processes occurring within the individual. Dissatisfied partner will focus on the reasons behind the dissatisfaction. Individuals will privately mull and weigh out the pros and cons - may share with a trusted friend

Dyadic - “we should break up” the couple can no longer go without discussing their relationship. A series of confrontations and the rs are discussed. There are 2 outcomes, a break up or a renewed desire to repair it

Social phase - “I mean it” This process involves the couple’s social network the break up is made public. Partners will seek support and make support groups. Mutual friends are to pick a side. Some friends provide reinforcement and some will blame the partner.

Grave-dressing - Foccusses on the aftermath, time to bury the relationship and create a story for public consumption. Allows the partners to keep a positive reputation (at the expense of their ex-partner) Also create a personal story you can live with

Question 48

Duck’s Phase model A03

Answer 48

• Cultural bias:
• original model failed to acknowledge personal growth: in a later model, the stage of resurrection was introduced after the grave-dressing phase to account for the period after a rs end where an individual engages with personal growth. This made the model more valid.
  -overlooks the role each individual may play: Akert found that individuals who didn’t initiate the breakup were more miserable, reporting high levels of depression, loneliness and anger. those who initiated the breakup had less negative symptoms but often displayed guilt.
  + help couples mend rs’: Duck said that if individuals focused on the positive aspects of their partner during the first stage, this can be beneficial in stabilising the rs. This can help counsellors to help mend relationships.

Question 49

Reduced cues theory: Sproull and Kiesler

Answer 49

Virtual relationships are less effective than FTF ones because they lack many of the cues we would normally depend on during FTF interactions
Including non-verbal cues (i.e body language)
Reduces a person’s sense of individual identity which leads to disinhibitation many are more careless online

Question 50

Hyperpersonal model: Walter

Answer 50

Virtual relationships can be more personal and involve more self-disclosure, so they can develop very quickly as SD happens earlier

Selective self-presentation: the sender has greater control over what they send and disclose. They present themselves in an idealised way, this can be done by being hyperhonest and/or hyperdishonest.
Receiver gains a positive impression of the sender they may give feedback that re-enforces the sender’s SD/presentation

Question 51

Absence of gating

Answer 51

A gate is a feature that can interfere with the development of a relationship. (i.e. being fat, short or stammer) If the gates are absent, a person can change their identities to fit what their ideal would be, they may be much more confident online.

Question 52

Virtual relationships A03 Support

Answer 52

+ absence of gating: Shy lonely and anxious people find VRs valuable. Bargh et al looked at the online communication of those types of individuals and found that people were able to express their true selves more than in FtF situations. Of the romantic relationships formed online, 71% at least survived 2 years. Suggesting that shy people benefit online presumably because of the gating that can obstruct FtF relationships - this is absent online

Question 53

Virtual relationships A03 Limitations

Answer 53

• lack of support for reduced there are different types of cues in VR, rather than an absence of them. These include style and timing of messages, use of exclamation marks and capital letters, emojis and so on. Online communication has clearly been successful, which reduced cues theory would find difficult to explain.
• There are many different types of CMC, which may or may not encourage self-disclosure. There is evidence that self-disclosure happens less regularly on dating websites, due to the anticipation of face-to-face meetings in the future. This weakens explanations of virtual relationships, as they may not be applicable to all types of CMC.

Question 54

Define parasocial relationships

Answer 54

One-sided relationships, un-reciprocated with a celebrity, fictional character or prominent figure in the community

Question 55

3 levels of parasocial relationships

Answer 55

McCutcheon et al developed the Celebrity Attitude Scale and used a large survey.

[20%] entertainment social: fans are attracted by the entertainment value of celebrities and because they serve a social function (ie. chatting w friends)
[10%] intense-personal: fans have intense adn compulsive feelings about their fave celebrity
[1%] borderline-pathological: fans develop uncontrollable fantasies and behaviours relating to their favourite celebrity, this is the most extreme form.

not all people fall into categories

Question 56

McCutcheon et al: absorption addiction model

Answer 56

this model was proposed to explain the parasocial addictions, it suggests that people engage in PSR to compensate for deficiencies in their life.

Absorption - looking for satisfaction in celebrity worship makes a person intensely focus on PSRs and achieving a sense of fulfillment motivates them to become more attached.
Addiction - This sense of fulfillment then becomes addictive for the person, leading them to engage in more risky behaviour (like stalking) to get mentally and/or physically closer.

Question 57

Parasocial relationships attachment theory explanation

Answer 57

There is a tendency to form PRSs in adolescence or adulthood due to difficulties in forming relationships in early childhood

Insecure-resistant types are most likely to develop PSRs as adults as they have unfulfilled needs to be met, but not in relationships that have the risk of rejection, breakups and disappointments

Question 58

Parasocial Relationships Support A03

Answer 58

Practical applications: Research into the absorption-addiction model has found that teenagers are particularly likely to form parasocial relationships and that stressful life events (e.g. death of a loved one) can trigger these relationships to become more intense (e.g. the borderline-pathological level). These observations can be used to treat and provide support for those most at-risk of developing dangerous parasocial relationships.

Question 59

Parasocial Relationships Limitations A03

Answer 59

Methodological concerns: Much of the research into parasocial relationships uses self-report techniques such as questionnaires. These methods may not produce valid findings, as participants may give answers that are socially desirable rather than honest. For example, someone who has thoughts about stalking a celebrity may be embarrassed to admit so in a questionnaire.