Relationships

Question 1

what is sexual selection?

Answer 1

it explains why some characteristics appear disadvantageous but are actually an advantage in human reproductive behaviour.

Question 2

Anisogamy

Answer 2

-refers to differences between male and female sex cells.
-male gametes (sperm) are small, mobile, created continuously in large amounts form puberty to old and don’t require much energy to produce.
-female gametes (egg) are large, static, produced in intervals for limited years, and require much energy.
-a consequence is that there is a shortage of fertile women but not men.
this causes two mating strategies - inter and intra sexual selection.

Question 3

inter-sexual selection
Psychologist?

Answer 3

-mate choice
-one sex has preferences for members of the opposite sex with certain qualities.
-preferred by females (quality over quantity)
-TRIVERS believes females make a greater investment of time and commitment during and after the birth of offspring. making a wrong choice has serious consequences for females than men so she can be more choosy.
-females choose genetically fit partner who can provide which leaves males competing to mate with the fertile female.
-females preference for her partner determines the features passed onto offspring. RUNWAY PROCESS
For example, if height is attractive then over time the population of men will get higher as they are the ones mating.
-FISHERS sexy son hypothesis found females mate with desirable men which that trait is passes to the son and successive generations of females will mate with her son.

Question 4

intra-sexual selection

Answer 4

-mate competition
-members of the same sex compete for members of the other sex and those who win can mate and pass their genes onto the next generation.
-preferred by males (quantity over quality)
-it has consequences because males must act aggressively in order to acquire female mates and protect them from other competing males.

Question 5

EVALUATION

1. Research support for preferences (psychologist?)
2. Research support for inter-sexual selection (psychologists?)
3. ignores social and cultural influences

Answer 5

1. BUSS completed a survey of 10,000 adults from 33 countries. he asked them questions about partner preference and found females places greater value on resource characteristics such as ambition. males preferred good looks and younger mates. These finding are representative.
2. CLARK AND HATFIELD proved female choosiness. M & F students were sent out on campus to ask other students “I have been noticing you for a while and find you attractive. will you got to bed with me tonight?”. no females agreed but 75% of males did.
3. partner preferences have changed over time especially when the availability of contraception came around. women’s greater role in the workplace means they are no longer dependant on men meaning they are no longer resource oriented.

Question 6

what is self disclosure?

Answer 6

revealing likes, dislikes, hopes and fears to another person. this helps in early stages to learn more about each other.

Question 7

social penetration theory

Answer 7

ALTHAM AND TAYLOR created a social penetration theory to to describe how relationships develop.
- revealing your inner self to someone is a gradual process.
-involves a reciprocal exchange of information.
-when one reveals it displays trust and the other must also reveal something.
-as time goes on they reveals more and more and penetrate deeply into each others lives.

Question 8

breadth and depth

Answer 8

-Breadth is when disclosure is narrow because some topics are off limits at early stages in a relationship. if you reveal too much too soon it can threaten the relationship.
- Depth is when the relationship develops, self disclosure becomes deeper. eventually we can intimate high risk information of painful memories or secrets.

Question 9

reciprocity of self disclosure

Answer 9

REIS AND SHAVER believe that for a relationship to develop and for breadth and depth there must be a reciprocal element to disclosure.

Question 10

EVALUATION

1. Support from research studies (psychologists?)
2. Real life application
3. cultural differences (psychologist?)

Answer 10

1. SPENCER AND HENDRICK studies 2 heterosexual couples and found strong correlations between satisfaction and disclosure. men and women who used self disclosure where most satisfied and committed to their relationship. valid theory.
2. The research can help people improve communication in their relationship. psychologists found 57% of gay men and women said self disclosure maintained and deepened their relationship. this can help other couples who are struggling.
3. TANG reviewed research of sexual self disclosure. men and women in the USA self disclose more sexual thoughts and feeling then those in China. Both were linked to satisfied couples. the research is based on western cultures.

Question 11

what makes someone physically attractive?
(psychologists?)

Answer 11

SHACKELFORD AND LARSEN found people with symmetrical faces were attractive.
This is because it signals genetic fitness.
- baby face features such as big eyes, delicate chin, small nose are attractive because they signal a protective instinct which is important for females.

Question 12

The halo effect

Answer 12

• physical attractiveness also matters because preconceived ideas about personality traits which attractive people have.
• physically attractive people are rated kind, strong, sociable and successful.
• Believing that good looking people have these traits makes them more attractive.

Question 13

The matching hypothesis
(psychologist?)

Answer 13

• although attractiveness is desirable, common sense tells us we cant all be with the most attractive people.
• the assessment of our own attractiveness impacts the way we choose a partner.
• WALSTER believes people choose romantic partners who are of roughly the same level of attractiveness to them.
• we desire the most attractive people but balance this against the wish to avoid being rejected by someone out of our league.

Question 14

EVALUATION

1. Research support of halo effect (psychologists?)
2. Research support for the matching hypothesis
   (psychologist?)
3. individual differences
   (psychologist?)

Answer 14

1. PALMER AND PERTERSON found physically attractive people were rated the most politically knowledgeable. The halo effect has been found in many other areas of everyday life which confirms physical attractiveness is important in the initial formation of relationships.
2. FEINGOLD did a meta analysis of 17 studies and found a correlation in ratings of attractiveness between romantic partners.
3. TOWHEY asked male and females to rate how much they would like to target an individual based on their photo. they also completed a questionnaire on sexist attitudes. those who scored high on sexist attitudes where more influenced by physical attractiveness.

Question 15

what is the filter theory?
(psychologists?)

Answer 15

• KERCKHOFF AND DAVIS compared the attitudes of couples in short term and long term relationships.
• The filter theory explains how romantic relationships develop and form.
• There is 3 main factors that act as filters for our partner choice.

Question 16

social demography
-first level

Answer 16

• social demography refers to factors that influence the chances of potential partners meeting.
• these include location, class, education level, ethnicity, religion.
• your more likely to meet people with the same demographical characteristics.
• you have the most memorable and meaningful interaction with those who live close. this is because it doesn’t require much effort to meet them.
• anyone too different is discounted as a potential partner.

Question 17

similarity in attitudes
-second level

Answer 17

• partners often share beliefs and values due to the first filter which usually means they share cultural characteristics.
• similarities in attitudes is important for development of romantic relationships but only for those together for short term.
• in the beginning partners need to agree on basic values to deepen communication and promote self disclosure.

Question 18

complementarity
-third level

Answer 18

• partners need to meet each others needs.
• they compliment each other when one has traits the other doesn’t. e.g. one likes making them laugh and other likes being made laugh.
• this is important for long term relationships.
• it makes them feel that together they make a whole.

Question 19

EVLAUATION

1. research support (psychologist?)
2. failure to replicate
3. similarity is and effect not a cause of initial attraction

Answer 19

1. filter theory assumes factors change in a relationship over time. this agree with most peoples experiences which makes it valid. WINCH found similarities in personality, interests and attitudes were typical at the start of a relationship. but partners who are happily married are more complementary.
2. many studies have failed to replicate the original one. this is due to social changes.
3. the theory suggest people are initially attracted to each other because they are similar. a longitudinal study of cohabiting couples found they became more similar in their emotional response over time.

Question 20

social exchange theory
(psychologists?)

Answer 20

• THILBAULT AND KELLY believe that behaviour in relationships reflects the economic assumptions.
• we minimize loses and maximize gains.
• rewards = sex, companionship and emotional support.

Question 21

what is the comparison level?

Answer 21

• way of measuring profit in a romantic relationship.
• comparison level (CL) is the amount of reward you believe you deserve to get.
• CL develops out of experiences of previous relationships. also influenced by social norms and reflected in the media, books and tv programmes.
• over time we experience more and CL changes as we acquire more data.

Question 22

what is comparison level for alternatives?

Answer 22

• another measure of profit
• we ask ourselves “ could we gain greater rewards and fewer costs from another relationship?”
• we stay in our current relationship if we believe it is more rewarding than alternatives.
• if you are in a satisfying relationship you may not even notice that alternatives are available.

Question 23

what are the 4 stages of relationship development?

Answer 23

1. sampling stage = explore rewards and costs by experimenting with them in our own relationship and overserving others.
2. bargaining stage = at the beginning of a relationship when partners exchange rewards and costs and identify what is most profitable.
3. commitment stage = as time goes on, costs and rewards are predictable and the relationship is more stable. rewards > costs.
4. institutionalization stage = partners are settled down into the norms of their relationship.

Question 24

EVALUATION

1. fails to distinguish between types of relationships (psychologists?)
2. mix up of cause and effect
3. ignores equity

Answer 24

1. CLARK AND MILLS argue the theory fails to distinguish between two types of relationships. exchange relationships such as work colleagues does involve exchange but communal relationships such as romantic relationships have exchange but there is no score keeping.
2. SET argues dissatisfaction sets in when we suspect costs outweigh the rewards and alternatives are more attractive. we don’t measure the costs and rewards in our relationship or consider the attractiveness of alternatives. this only happens when we are dissatisfied. the theory has cause and effect mixed up.
3. SET focuses on comparison level which is the ratio of rewards and costs. but it ignores equity in a relationship.

Question 25

what is the role of equity?
(psychologist?)

Answer 25

• equity means fairness
• WALTSER argues both partners level of profit must be roughly the same.
• when there is a lack of equity then one partner over benefits and the other under benefits.
• the under benefited partner will feel dissatisfaction, and humiliation whereas the the over benefited partner will feel guilt and discomfort.

Question 26

how does equity change throughout the relationship?

Answer 26

at the start of the relationship it may feel natural to contribute more than you receive but as it develops you will get less out of doing more and feel dissatisfied.

Question 27

dealing with inequity

Answer 27

• a partner will try to make the relationship more equitable.
• the more unfair the relationship feels the harder they have to work to achieve equity.

Question 28

EVALUATION

1. supporting research evidence
2. cultural influences (psychologist?)
3. individual differences

Answer 28

1. psychologists carried out a survey of over 100 recently married couples to measure equity. the couples who considered their relationship equitable were more satisfied than those who saw them as over or under benefitting. this increases the validity of the explanation.
2. AUMER-RYAN found cultural differences in the link between equity and satisfaction. couples from an individualist culture felt satisfied when equitable and those of a collectivist culture were satisfied when over benefitting.
3. some people are less sensitive to equity than others. some partners are willing to contribute more to a relationship than what they get out of it. equity is not a necessary global feature of all romantic relationships.

Question 29

what is the investment model?
(psychologist?)

Answer 29

RUSBULT believed that commitment depended on 3 factors. these factors include satisfaction, comparison with alternatives and investment.

Question 30

Investment size

Answer 30

• RUSBULT believed that social exchange theory was not enough to explain commitment.
• he involved investment. investment refers to the extent and importance of resources associated with the relationship.
• two types:
  *intrinsic investments
  resources directly put into a relationship. tangibles like money and possessions or intangibles like energy and emotion.
  *extrinsic investments
  resources that previously didn’t feature in the relationship but now do. things brought together or shared memories.

Question 31

why do people stay in relationships?

Answer 31

• they made an investment and don’t want to see it go to waste.
• they will work harder to maintain and repair a damaged relationship especially when it hits a rough patch.

Question 32

relationship maintenance mechanisms

Answer 32

• long term partners will put their partners interests first and forgive them for any serious transgressions.
• committed partners thing unrealistically positively about their partner and negative about tempting alternatives.

Question 33

EVALUATION

1. supporting research evidence (psychologists?)
2. explains abusive relationships (psychologists?)
3. oversimplifies investment

Answer 33

1. LE AND ANGREW did a meta analysis of 52 studies. they found satisfaction, comparison with alternatives and investment size predicted relationship commitment. those were the stable long lasting relationships. this was true for bother genders, sexualities and many cultures.
2. RUSBULT AND MARTZ studies battered women at a shelter and found those most likely to return to their abusive partner reported making the greatest investment and having the fewest attractive alternatives. they don’t have to be satisfied to stay in.
3. there is more to investment than the resources you have already put into a relationship. in early stages there are few investments. and expansion was made for the investment partners make about future plans. they are motivated to see these plans work out.

Question 34

what is DUCKS phase model?

Answer 34

• he proposed a phase model of relationship breakdown.
• the ending of a relationship is a process that takes time through 4 phases.

Question 35

intra-psychic phase

Answer 35

• a partner is dissatisfied and thinks about the reasons for this.
• they think privately.
• they weigh up pros and cons of the relationship and compare with alternatives.

Question 36

dyadic phase

Answer 36

• the point when they cant avoid talking about their relationship for any longer.
• there is series of confrontations
• two outcomes
  *break up
  *renew and repair
• if rescue attempts fail another phase occurs

Question 37

social phase

Answer 37

• the break up is now public
• partners seek support
• mutual friends take sides
• friends provide reassurance
• others may try to help repair the relationship

Question 38

grave dressing phase

Answer 38

• relationship is dead
• they spin a favourable story to public to maintain a positive reputation at the expense of the other partner.
• memories are tidied up
• traits once found exciting are now viewed in a negative way.
• time to get a new life

Question 39

EVALUATION

1. incomplete model (psychologists?)
2. methodological issues
3. real life applications

Answer 39

1. ROLLIE AND DUCK modified the original model to add a fifth phase called the resurrection phase. ex partners going into new relationships use experiences gained from previous relationship. they also showed progression between phases is not inevitable and you can go back.
2. participants give experiences of breakups once the relationship ends. their recall may not be accurate. the early stages of breakdown may be distorted. it is also impossible to study these phases because involvement can make things worse.
3. the model recognises repair strategies are more effective at certain points of the breakdown than others. e.g. in the intra psychic phase people should focus on positive aspects of their partner. in the dyadic phase communication should be prioritised.

Question 40

reduced cues theory
(psychology?)

Answer 40

• SPROULL AND KIESLER believed virtual relationships were less effective then face to face because they lack cues.
• these include non verbal such as appearance and emotional like facial expressions.
• this causes deindividualization because they lose the sense of individual identity.
• this mean people may be less likely to self disclose and reveal feelings to as they are impersonal.

Question 41

the hyperperosnal model
(psychologist?)

Answer 41

• WALTHER argues online relationships are more personal and involve greater self disclosure.
• they develop quickly and self disclosure happens earlier.
• senders of messages have more time to manipulate their online image which is called selective self selection.
• when you are aware other people don’t know your identity you feel less accountable for your behaviour.

Question 42

absence gating of virtual relationships

Answer 42

• a gate is a obstacle to the formation of a relationship
• face to face interactions are gated because features like unattractiveness and social anxiety prevent development of a relationship.
• online there is an absence of gating which leads to more self disclosure as people are more interested in what each other tells each other rather than appearance.

Question 43

EVALUATION

1. lack of research support of reduced cues theory
2. research support of hyperperosnal model
3. types of online interactions

Answer 43

1. nonverbal cues are not missing they are just different. online interactions use cues like timing of messages. the use of emojis are useful substitutes for facial expressions. the success of online communication shows they are just as personal as face to face.
2. the model predicts people are motivated to self disclose in online interactions. WHITTY AND JOINSON found questions asked online are direct and intimate. this removes small talk.
3. self disclosure online depend on the type type being used. on social networking sites people have relationships on the offline world, people are more likely to self disclose on Facebook than a web form.

Question 44

what are the levels of parasocial relationships?

Answer 44

• entertainment-social = least intense, celebs viewed as sources of entertainment. friend may talk about fav characters in shows.
• intense-personal = intermediate level, a fan may have frequent obsessive thoughts and felling about someone.
• borderline pathological = strongest level, uncontrollable fantasies and extreme behaviours. they may spend lots of money on celeb related things or do anything the celeb tells them to do.

Question 45

the absorption addiction model
(psychologist?)

Answer 45

• MCCUTCHEON believes parasocial relationships are formed when someone has deficiencies in their own life.
• parasocial relationship allows them to escape reality and find fulfilment they cant achieve in real relationships.
• the model has 2 components :
  *Absorption = seeking fulfilment in celebrity worship and focusing all attention to them
  *Addiction = the individual need to stay committed to feel stronger involvement to the celebrity. this leads to extreme behaviours and delusional thinking.

Question 46

the attachment theory explanation

Answer 46

• there is a tendency to form parasocial relationships in adulthood if they had difficulties in childhood.
• Ainsworth 3 attachment types. insecure attachment = parasocial relationship, secure attachment = no.

Question 47

EVALUATION

1. support for absorption addiction model (psychologist?)
2. problems with attachment theory
   (psychologist?)
3. methodological issues

Answer 47

1. MALTBY investigated the link between celebrity worship and body image teens. females had intense personal parasocial relationships with celebs whose body shape they admired. it was found that they had poor body image.
2. MCCUTCHEON measured attachment types and celebrity attitudes. those with insecure attachments were no more likely to form parasocial relationships than those who were securely attached.
3. most research uses self report methods and are subject to effects that can bias the findings.