Issues And Debates

Question 1

what is free will?

Answer 1

• the idea that humans are self determining and free to choose actions and thoughts.
• we can reject forces such as biology and environment and control our own destiny.

Question 2

what is determinism?
- hard
- soft

Answer 2

• the idea that human behaviour is determined by causes which are external to the will.
• soft determinism is the idea that human action has a cause but there is room for manoeuvre, where people can control the way we behave. we can make rational conscious choices.
• hard determinism is the idea that human behaviour has a cause and it is possible to identify the cause. everything we do is dictated by internal and external forces we cant control.

Question 3

what are the types of hard determinism?

Answer 3

• biological determinism = the belief that biological processes are not under our conscious control. e.g. mental disorders have a genetic base and hormones impact behaviour.
• environmental determinism = we are influenced by environmental forces such as agencies of socialisation. e.g. skinner, Pavlov.
• psychic determinism = unconscious drives and instincts have a significant influence on behaviour.

Question 4

EVALUATION of free will

• face validity
• law supports free will
• contradictory view

Answer 4

1. everyday experience gives an impression we are constantly exercising free will through choices we make. The argument of choice aligns with peoples belief we have free will which gives it face validity.
2. free will is a belief of our law system. criminals make choices to break the law and are held accountable for them. without free will we wouldn’t be able to hold them accountable.
3. SKINNER argues free will is an illusion. our behaviour is environmentally determined. e.g. we may choose to go to therapy but we are aware if we don’t go there will be consequences such as my family will be annoyed. I also know therapy helped me in the past. this means we are not freely choosing but instead we are avoiding bad consequences and influenced by past.

Question 5

EVALUATION of determinism

• allows psychology to be scientific
• evidence not fully supporting biological determinism
• discredits therapy

Answer 5

1. the idea that there are causes and effects and laws makes psychology scientific. the value of research has led to development of treatments. treatments for mental health issues occur because there is a cause for the issue.
2. its doubtful there will ever be 100% genetic determinism for any behaviour which shows biological determinism is not true. e.g. studies on identical twins show 80% similarity for intelligence and 40% depression. genes cant entirely determine behaviour.
3. the goal of therapy is to help a patient overcome the forces of the unconscious. without the belief that people can change means therapy makes no sense.

Question 6

what is the nature argument?

Answer 6

the idea that human characteristics and aspects of knowledge are innate and hereditary which means they can be transferred through generations.

Question 7

what is the nurture argument?

Answer 7

• the idea that human characteristics and behaviour is influenced by learning and our environment.
• environment can be anything from mothers state whilst pregnant or social conditions a child grows up in.

Question 8

what is the interactionist approach?

Answer 8

the idea that nature and nurture are linked and it doesn’t make sense to seperate them so we should look at how they influence each other.

Question 9

what is the diathesis stress model?

what is epigenetics?

Answer 9

• suggests that psychopathology is caused by our genes but is only expressed when combined with an environmental trigger.
• idea that our genetic activity is due to our interactions with our environment. events such as war, diet can leave epigenetic marks on our lives. our bodies choose to ignore certain genes which influences the genetic codes passed onto children.

Question 10

EVALUATION of nature arguments

• practical application
• research support (psychologist?)
• social sensitivity

Answer 10

1. if we believe behaviour is innate we can create biological based treatments. e.g. if we know the imbalance of serotonin is genetic then we can use ssris to ease symptoms. these treatments have be found to be highly effective which improves people’s lives.
2. FRIES states that studies have consistently shown adopted children show greater resemblance to their biological parents rather than environmental parents. this shows nature is stronger than nurture.
3. nature can cause scientific racism. studies that found the average IQ of black americans was lower than white american due to a genetic base have been used negatively. many years ago these findings have justified the force sterilization of black american women.

Question 11

EVALUATION of nurture arguments

• practical application
• research support
• social sensitivity

Answer 11

1. the belief that behaviour can be manipulated by changing a person’s environment has led to practical applications in therapy. e.g. in token economy systems people with anorexia or criminals will be rewarded for desirable behaviour and punished for undesirable.
2. evidence from studies like little albert, skinner’s rats, and pavlov’s dogs have shown nurture can explain behaviour. However all these studies have issues with validity and sample.
3. if we assume behaviour is the product of environment this can raise some uncomfortable issues. e.g. attachment studies that blame the mother for poor psychological development of their child.

Question 12

EVALUATION of the interactionist approach

• research support for nature and nurture interlinked

Answer 12

1. people can create their own nurture by selecting an environment that is well suited to their nature. e.g. quiet, shy children may choose to spend time with other children of similar behaviours.

Question 13

what is holism?

Answer 13

the idea that we can only understand a person if we study them a whole. we cant analyse behaviour in parts.

Question 14

what is reductionism?

Answer 14

the belief that behaviours should be analysed by breaking it down into parts.

Question 15

what is biological reductionism?

what is environmental reductionism?

Answer 15

• the belief that all biological organisms are made up of physiological structures and processes which means behaviour can be explained through genetic influences.
• the belief that all beahviour can be explained in terms of stimulus response that has been learned through experience.

Question 16

what are the levels of explanation in psychology?

Answer 16

-holistic explanations consider all levels but reductionists consider one level. the top level looks at broader influences and the bottom is most reductionist.

Question 17

EVALUATION of holism

• allows for social psychology
• lacks falsifiability
• inconclusive explanation

Answer 17

1. many elements of psychology would not be possible without the holistic approach. social behaviour can only be analyzed when looking at interactions between groups rather than individual behaviour’s. e.g. Zimbardo’s experiment wouldn’t be possible without a group.
2. holistic arguments are difficult to scientifically prove because there are many variables. its difficult to establish the most influential factor. it also becomes difficult to make treatments.
3. they are vague and speculative. many factors make it difficult to establish the factor which is most influential.

Question 18

EVALUATION of reductionism

• scientific
• practical application
• lacks ecological validity

Answer 18

1. experimental psychology is based on the assumption behaviour can be studied in simple experiments where complex behaviour is reduced to isolated variables. this means variables can be controlled and relationships established.
2. all types of reductionism help create treatments for psychological disorders. biological has led to biological therapies such as drugs. e.g. SSRI’s. environmental has allowed us to treat phobias with systematic desensitization.
3. experiments are highly controlled to ensure internal validity between relationship of variables. this means it is not in the real world and doesn’t reflect real human behaviour. e.g. Loftus and Palmer.

Question 19

what is the idiographic approach?

Answer 19

• focuses on the individual as unique.
• each person has their own individual experiences that are subjective so it would be pointless to compare individual to large groups.

Question 20

what methodology is used in the idiographic approach?

Answer 20

• qualitative methods such as case studies and unstructured interviews.

Question 21

what is the nomothetic approach?

Answer 21

• studying human behaviour through general and universal laws.
• aims to produce laws which all people can be compared and measured by.

Question 22

whats was RADFORD AND KIRBY’S 3 categories?

Answer 22

• classifying people into groups = DMS-5 classifies people with psychological disorders
• Establishing principles of behaviour = able to generalise human behaviour
• Establishing dimensions = in which people can be placed e.g. IQ scores.

Question 23

what methodology is used in the nomothetic approach?

Answer 23

• quantitative methods such as experiments where variables can be controlled. hypothesis are created and tested.

Question 24

EVALUATION of idiographic approach

• objective and scientific
• valid
• hard to generalise findings

Answer 24

1. they can reduce bias by being reflective about them. reflectivity refers to the process of researching things and reflecting critically about factors that affect the behaviour of researchers and participants.
2. there is in depth insight and understanding of an individual. it can help provide additional explanation of why certain laws exist.
3. its difficult to make generalisations to others as the approach focuses on individual experiences. it is accused of being subjective and not scientific.

Question 25

EVALUATION of nomothetic approach

• scientific
• lacks validity

Answer 25

1. the process involved is more scientific and mirrors those used in natural sciences. it uses standardised conditions, data sets that provide averages, statistical testing and prediction and control. it produces reliable findings which generalisations can be made from.
2. it lacks validity and loses a sense of the individual. e.g. it may be possible to know the % of people who suffer from disorders but it doesn’t say how it feels to experience it so it is incomplete.

Question 26

what is universality?

what effect does bias have?

Answer 26

• the idea that something can be applied to all people regardless of their gender, culture or time.
• if psychologists bring their own biases then the research can no longer be applied to all people.

Question 27

what is gender bias?
- alpha
- beta

Answer 27

• when research does not represent the behaviour of either men or women.
• alpha bias is when research exaggerates the differences between sexes. e.g. devaluing women to their male counterparts.
• beta bias is when differences between men and women are minimised. e.g. women not included in samples.

Question 28

what is androcentrism?

Answer 28

• research is male centred
• e.g. male researcher or all male sample
• what we count as normal comes from male research then any behaviour that deviates is seen as abnormal or inferior

Question 29

Examples of gender bias in research

Answer 29

• MILGRAM concluded obedience to authority is situational and is normal in a hierarchy society.
• HOWEVER the research involves an all male sample and it may not apply to women.

Question 30

EVALUATION of gender bias

• increase in female psychologists
• alpha bias can also disadvantage men
• sexism in the research process

Answer 30

1. UCAS data shows there are more females than males studying psychology in every field of research. this will mean new publications will be free from androcentrism.
2. gender bias can also work against men. alpha bias theories may heighten the value of women. e.g. women are more likely to be diagnosed with depression and given treatment. depression is more acceptable in females and mean are expected to just pull themselves together.
3. the lack of women at senior levels means female concerns may not be posed in the research. male researchers are more likely to have their work published.

Question 31

what is ethnocentrism?

Answer 31

• when the researcher only sees the world from their own cultural perspective and believe this perspective is normal and correct.
• behaviour that deviates from western behaviour is abnormal.

Question 32

what is the etic approach?

Answer 32

• it looks at behaviour from outside a given culture and attempts to describe behaviours as universal.
• a culture-specific idea is wrongly imposed on another culture.

Question 33

what is cultural relativism?

Answer 33

• recognises that cultures behave differently and that behaviour can only be properly understood if cultural context is taken into consideration.

Question 34

what is the emic approach?

Answer 34

• it identifies behaviours that are specific to a culture. it believes their finding are not universal.

Question 35

Examples of cultural bias

Answer 35

• the deviation from social norms definition of abnormality is ethnocentric. social norms are based on the western culture.

Question 36

EVALUATION of cultural bias

• advocating cultural relativism (counter point)
• reducing western domination (psychologists?)
• are cultural differences significant anymore?

Answer 36

1. psychology is guilty of imposed etic. psychologists should be more mindful of cultural relativism in their research and should state their finding are only applicable to their culture rather than falsely claiming universality. HOWEVER, research into basic facial expressions for emotions is universal across all cultures.
2. SMITH AND BOND found in a survey of European textbooks on social psychology, that 66% of studies were American and 32% European and 2% from the rest of the world.
3. in the past culture refers to individualistic and collectivist culture. studies have identified globalisation and interconnectedness has meant there is no difference in collectivist and individualistic attitudes. cultural bias is no longer the issue it once was.

Question 37

what are ethical implications?

Answer 37

• when psychologists plan research they take actions to ensure it remains ethical and meets guidelines.
• it can be challenging to control wider ethical implications. e.g. they can control how the media presents their findings.

Question 38

what is socially sensitive research? (psychologists?)

Answer 38

• SIEBER AND STANLEY define socially sensitive research as studies which have potential consequences for participants or individuals represented in the study.

Question 39

what concerns that psychologists should consider when carrying out socially sensitive research did SIEBER AND STANLEY identify?

Answer 39

• implications = the wider effects of giving scientific validation to taboo issues. e.g. intelligence and race being linked.
• uses and public policy = psychologists should be mindful of how research could be used to influence public policy by governments. e.g. BOWLBY’s research influencing custody.
• validity of research = psychologists seem to present research as objective and scientific bu can later be found to be subjective. e.g. BURTS research concluded intelligence was genetic and it was used to justify use of IQ tests to determine which pupils went to which school. however the research has be discredited as BURT made up the research but it is still used to determine entry to grammar schools.

Question 40

EVALUATION of socially sensitive research

• benefits of socially sensitive research (psychologist?)
• as long as questions are framed sensitively
• there are wider implications

Answer 40

1. SCARR argues that research into taboo issues still ensures underrepresented groups are given a voice in the public domain and helps to promote acceptance and reduce prejudice. e.g. research into unreliability of EWT has reduced injustice.
2. it is important for psychologists to consider how their research questions are phrased to ensure prejudices are not reinforced.
3. a study showed that coca cola and popcorn sales increased when images of them flashed up on cinema screens too quickly for the audiences to be aware of them. it was revealed that the study was made up. the research seeked to manipulate the public.