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forensic psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

what is offender profiling?

A
  • an investigative tool used by police to solve crimes.
  • aims to narrow the field of enquiry and list of suspects.
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2
Q

The American approach - Top down approach

A
  • it originated in the USA as a result of the FBI’s work.
  • the FBI drew upon data gathered from interviews with serial killers.
  • offender profiling is is used to match whats known about a crime and offender to a pre-existing template that the FBI developed.
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3
Q

Organised and Disorganised offenders

A
  • ORGANISED OFFENDERS
    planned the crime in advance, victim targeted, high control, little evidence or clues left behind, above average intelligence, skilled professional occupation, married maybe children.
  • DISORGANISED OFFENDERS
    little planning, spontaneous offence, body at crime scene, lower than average IQ, unemployed, failed relationships, live alone near the offence.
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4
Q

stages of FBI profile

A
  1. Data assimilation - reviewing of evidence (photos, pathology)
  2. Crime scene classification - organised or dis
  3. Crime reconstruction - hypothesis in terms of sequence of events and behaviour of victim.
  4. Profile generation - hypothesis related to offence. (background, characteristics)
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5
Q

EVALUATION

  • Only applies to certain crimes
  • based on outdated personality models
  • counter evidence (psychologist?)
A
  1. top down profiling is best suites to scenes that reveal important details about the suspect. e.g. rape, torture. more common offences such as burglary can not be profiled as the scene tells little about the offender. limited approach.
  2. offender profiling is based on the idea that offenders have patterns of behaviour that are consistent. critics suggest it is naive and external factors are constantly changing to impact behaviours. poor validity.
  3. CANTER analysed data from 100 murders in the USA. details of each case were examined with reference to characteristics of typical o and d offenders.findings did not support the d offender which undermines the approach.
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6
Q

what is the bottom up approach? (BRITISH)

A
  • generates a picture of the offender through analysis of crime scene evidence.
  • characteristics, routine behaviour, social background.
  • the profile emerges as the investigator engages in deeper scrutiny of details of the offence.
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7
Q

what is investigative psychology?

A
  • it attempts to apply statistical procedures alongside psychological theory, to analyse crime scene evidence.
  • it tries to establish patterns of behaviour that occur across scenes. this is a database which is a baseline for comparison.
  • details are matched against the database to reveal important details about the offender.
  • INTERPERSONAL COHERENCE is the way an offender acts at the scene. e.g. some rapists may have control to humiliate victims but others are more apologetic.
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8
Q

what is geographical profiling?
(Psychologist?)

circle theory
(psychologist?)

A
  • ROSSMO used geographical profiling.
  • it uses info about the location of linked crime scenes to make inferences about the home base of the offender. (crime mapping)
  • the assumption is that serial offenders restrict work to geographical areas they are familiar with.
  • investigators can make educated guesses about where an offender is likely to strike next.
  • CANTER’S circle theory proposed two models of offender behaviour.
    1. Marauder
    operates close proximity to home base.
    2. Commuter
    travelled distances away from their base.
    Patterns of offending forms a circle around their base.
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9
Q

EVALUATION
- evidence for investigative psychology (psychologists?)
- evidence for geographical profiling (psychologists?)
- scientific basis

A
  1. CANTER AND HERITAGE did a content analysis of sexual assault cases. They used a computer programme to identify correlations. impersonal language and lack of relation to victims were found. this shows that statistical techniques can be applied to most cases.
  2. LUNDRIGAN AND CANTER collated information from 120 murder cases. analysis revealed spatial consistency in behaviours of killers. the offenders base was in the centre of offences. this supports the circle theory.
  3. bottom up profiling is more objective and scientific and less driven by speculation. with aid of AI, investigators can manipulate geographical, biological, and psychological data quickly to produce insights and results that assist in the investigation.
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10
Q

what is the atavistic form? (psychologist?)

A
  • LOMBROSO suggested criminals were genetic throwbacks and were biologically different from non-criminals.
  • his ideas laid the foundation for modern offender profiling techniques.
  • offenders lacked evolutionary development so could not adjust to the demands of civilised society and would turn to crime.
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11
Q

what are the atavistic characteristics? (psychologist?)

A

-LOMBROSO argued features of the face and head make criminals physically different.
- the atavistic form included a narrow slopping brow, strong jaw, high cheekbones, facial asymmetry, dark skin and extra toes, fingers or nipples.
- Murderers had bloodshot eyes, long ears, swollen lips.
- they use criminal slang, have tattoos and are unemployed.

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12
Q

what was LOMBROSO’S research?

A
  • he examined features of many living and dead convicts. He examined 383 skulls of dead criminals and 3839 living ones to find 40% of criminal acts could be accounted for by atavistic characteristics.
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13
Q

EVALUATION

  • contribution to criminology
  • scientific racism (psychologist?)
  • contradictory evidence (psychologist?)
A
  1. LOMBROSO is the father of modern criminology and has shifted emphasis in crime research away from moralistic discourse and towards a more scientific and credible realm. trying to describe people who are likely to commit crime is the beginning of criminal profiling.
  2. DELISI draws attention to racial undertones in the many of the features identified such as curly hair, dark skin are found amongst those of African descent. This makes his work uncomfortable and controversial today.
  3. GORING set out to establish if there was physical or mental abnormalities among the criminal classes. he conducted a comparison between 3000 criminals and 3000 non and found no evidence that offenders had the characteristics.
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14
Q

what is the genetic explanation for crime? (psychologists?)

A
  • offenders inherit a gene that predisposes them to commit crime.
  • this is commonly demonstrated by twin studies.
    LANGE investigated 13 identical (MZ) and 17 non-identical (DZ) twins where one had spent time in prison. 10 of the MZ and 2 DZ had co-twins also in prison. Genetics must play a role in offending behaviours.
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15
Q

candidate genes research
(psychologist?)

A
  • TIHONEN genetically analysed offenders and found abnormalities in 2 genes associated with violent crime. in the sample those with high risk combination were 13 times more likely to have a history of violent behaviour.
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16
Q

Diathesis stress model explanation

A
  • genetics have influence on offending but so does environment.
  • tendency towards criminal behaviour comes about through a combination of genetic predisposition and biological or psychological trigger.
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17
Q

neural explanation

prefrontal cortex (psychologist?)

mirror neurons (psychologist?)

A
  • there are neural differences in the brains of criminals and non - criminals.
  • RAINE studied antisocial personality disorder brains. He found several dozen brain imaging studies showing individuals with APD have reduced activity in their prefrontal cortex (regulates emotional behaviour).
  • KEYSERS found when criminals were asked to empathise did the empathy reaction activate. This shows APD individuals are not totally without empathy but have a neural switch that can be turned on and off.
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18
Q

EVALUATION

  • problems with twin studies
  • support for the diathesis stress model of crime (psychologist?)
  • biological reductionism
A
  1. LANGES research was poorly controlled, and judgements were based on appearance rather than DNA testing this means they lack validity. Twin studies also include smaller sample sizes and are unrepresentative of the rest of the population. most twins are reared in the same environment, which is a confounding variable.
  2. MEDNICK studies 13,000 adoptees and found when neither biological nor adoptive patents had convictions, 13.5% of adoptees had. When either did it was 20% and when both it was 24.5%. This shows that biological and environmental are important.
  3. Criminality is complex and explanations that reduce offending behaviour to a genetic or neural level are overly simplistic. Crime runs in family but so does mental illness, poverty and social deprivation.
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19
Q

General personality theory (EYSNECK)

A
  • EYSNECK was important in personality and inteligence research.
  • he proposed that behaviour could be represented along introversion/extraversion and neuroticism/stability.
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20
Q

Biological basis

A
  • EYSENCK believed personality traits had a biological origin and come about through the nervous system we have.
  • extroverts have an underactive nervous system which seeks excitement, stimulation and risk taking behaviours. They learn from mistakes.
  • neurotic people are nervous, jumpy, over anxious which makes them hard to predict.
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21
Q

The criminal personality

A
  • neurotic-extravert
  • they are also cold , unemotional, and prone to aggression.
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22
Q

The role of socialisation

A
  • EYSENCK believed personality is linked to criminal behaviour via socialisation process.
  • criminal behaviour is developmentally immature and concerned with immediate gratification.
  • the process of delayed gratification is taught to children to be more patient and socially oriented.
  • people with the criminal personality were hard to condition and act on impulses.
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23
Q

Measuring criminal personality

A
  • EYSENCK PERSONALITY INVENTORY (EPI) is a psychological test that rates respondats to determine their personality type.
24
Q

EVALUATION

  • evidence supporting EYSENCK’S theory
  • criticism of single criminal type (psychologist?)
  • cultural bias (psychologists?)
A
  1. EYSENCK AND EYSENCK compared male prisoners EPI scores with control males. on psychoticism, extraversion and neuroticism the prisoners scored higher than the controls.
  2. MOFFITT proposed several types of adult male offender based on the timing of their first offence and how long offending persists. in addition the five factor model of personality suggests more dimensions including openness, agreeableness.
  3. BARTOL AND HOLANCHOCK studied hispanic and african american offenders in prison. the were subdivided into groups based on the offence and in all it was found they were less extravert than the non-criminal group.
25
Q

level of moral reasoning
(Psychologist?)

A
  • KOHLBERG proposed that peoples decisions and judgements on whats right and wrong are summarised in a theory of moral development. the higher the stage the more sophisticated reasoning.
  • studies show criminals show a lower level of moral reasoning than non-criminals.
26
Q

KOHLBERG’S model and criminality

A
  • criminal offenders are more likely to be at the preconventional level in the model.
  • the preconventional level is characterised by needing to avoid punishment and gain rewards.
  • adults who reason at this level commit crime if they can get away with it or gain rewards in money or respect.
  • individuals who reason at higher levels can sympathise more with the rights of others.
27
Q

cognitive distortions

2 examples of cognitive distortions

A
  • cognitive distortions are errors or biases in peoples information processing systems characterised by faulty thinking.
  • HOSTILE ATTRIBUTION BIAS
    propensity of violence is associated with a tendency to misinterpret actions of other people. offenders misread non-aggressive cues which triggers disproportionate responses.
    A study presented violent offenders with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions. the violent offenders were more likely to perceive images as angry and hostile.
  • MINIMALISATION
    denying or downplaying the seriousness of an offence. e.g. burglars may say they are supporting the family as a way of minimising the seriousness of the offence.
    a study of 26 incarcerated rapists found 54% denied the committed the offence at all and 40% minimised harm done.
28
Q

EVALUATION

  • level of moral reasoning evidence
  • alternative theories of moral reasoning
  • application of research
A
  1. PALMER AND HOLLIN compared moral reasoning of of non-offenders and offenders using the sociomoral reflection measure short-form. they were asked 11 moral dilemma related questions. the delinquent group showed less mature moral reasoning which is consistent with KOHLBERG’S predictions.
  2. GIBBS proposed a version of KOHLBERG’S theory compromising two levels of reasoning: mature and immature. in the first level are guided by avoidance of punishment and personal gain and the second level by empathy, social injustice and one’s own conscience. these are equivalent to the preconventional and conventional. GIBBS wanted the conventional level to be abandoned as it was culturally biased.
  3. understanding the nature of cognitive distortions is beneficial in treatment of criminal behaviour. rehab of sex offenders is CBT which encourages them to face up and establish a less distorted view of their actions.
29
Q

what is the differential association theory?

A
  • it proposes that individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques and motives for criminal behaviour through association and interaction with different people.
30
Q

scientific basis (psychologist?)

A
  • SUTHERLAND wanted to develop a set of scientific principles that could explain all types of offending.
  • conditions which cause crime should be present when crime is present and absent when crime is absent.
31
Q

crime as a learned behaviour

A

offending behaviour may be aquired through the process of learning. Learning occurs through interactions with significant others such as family and peers.

  • criminality arises from two factors
    >learned attitudes towards crime
    >learning of specific criminal acts
32
Q

Pro-criminal attitudes (psychologist?)

A
  • when a person is socialised into a group, they are exposed to values and attitudes of them.
  • some will be pro-crime and some anti-crime.
  • SUTHERLAND argues that if pro-criminal attitudes outweigh anti-criminal attitudes, then they will offend.
33
Q

Learning criminal acts

A
  • SUTHERLANDS theory explains why so many convicts released go and re offend.
  • inside prison inmates learn techniques of offending from each other and are eager to put them into practise on release.
  • this learning occurs through observation, imitation, and direct tuition.
34
Q

EVALUATION

  • explanatory power
  • shift in focus
  • difficulty testing
A
  1. Differential association theory can account for crime in all sectors of society. SUTHERLAND was interested in crimes like burglary which are clustered in working class communities. He was also interested in white collar and corporate crime.
  2. SUTHERLAND was successful in shifting the focus away from biological accounts for crime such as lombrosos theory. Differential association theory draws attention to the fact dysfunctional social circumstances are to blame for crime rather than dysfunctional people. This is more desirable and realistic.
  3. The theory is hard to test. It’s hard to see how many pro-criminal attitudes a person has or has been exposed to. The theory focuses on pro outweighing anti but without measuring these it’s hard to know when a criminal career is triggered.
35
Q

the inadequate superego (psychologist?)

A
  • the superego, id and ego make up the tripartite structure of personality.
  • the superego works on the morality principle and punishes the ego through guilt for wrongdoing and rewarding it for moral behaviour.
  • BLACKBURN argued if the superego was deficient then criminal behaviour would be inevitable. because the id is given free reign.
36
Q

what are the three types of inadequate superego?

A
  • the weak superego
    if the same sex parent is absent during phallic stage then the child cant internalise a fully formed superego. there is no opportunity for identification and criminal behaviour is more likely.
  • the deviant superego
    if the superego the child internalises is immoral it would lead to offending behaviour.
  • the over-harsh superego
    an overly harsh superego mean the superego is crippled by guilt and anxiety. this would cause criminality as the superegos need for punishment must be satisfied.
37
Q

the maternal deprivation theory

A
  • BOWLBY argued that to form meaningful adult relationships the child must have had a warm mother figure.
  • failure to form this bond would result in irreversible consequences in later life.
  • maternally deprived individuals will suffer affectionless psychopathy and engage in acts of delinquency.
  • BOWLBY 44 THIEVES - interviewed thieves and 14 showed affectionless psychopathy. 12 of them had maternal deprivation.
38
Q

EVALUATION

  • gender bias
  • contradictory evidence
  • unconscious concepts
A
  1. an assumption within the freudian explanation is that girls develop a weaker supergeo than boys. this suggests that females should be more prone to criminal behaviour. this is not supported by statistics of male to female ratio of inmates.
  2. there is little evidence that a child raised without a same sex parent are less law abiding. in addition if children who were raised by deviant parents go to commit crime this could be due to genetics or socialization rather than a weak superego.
  3. psychodynamic explanations lack falsifiability. there are many unconscious concepts which mean applications to crime can’t be empirically tested.
39
Q

what is custodial sentencing?
what are the aims?

A
  • involves a convicted offender spending time in prison or another closed institution.
  • Deterrence - the unpleasant prison should put off the individual reoffending. it works on two levels. one is general deterrence which aims to send a message that crime is not tolerated. the second is individual deterrence which prevents the individual repeating the same crime.
  • incapacitation - offender out of society to prevent reoffending and protect society.
  • retribution - society gets revenge by making the offender suffer. suffering is proportionate to the crime.
  • rehabilitation - upon release offenders should be ready to take their place back in society. prison allows them to develop skills. treatment for addiction and reflection.
40
Q

the psychological effects of custodial sentencing

A
  • stress and depression - suicide is higher in prison and self harm.
  • institutionalisation - adopting the norms and routines of prison life makes them unable to function outside.
  • prisonization - prisoners are socialised to adopt inmate code. behaviour acceptable in prison may not be on the outside.
41
Q

the problem of recidivism

A
  • recidivism refers to reoffending.
  • 57% of UK offenders will reoffend in a year of release.
42
Q

EVALUATION

  • evidence supports psychological effects
  • individual differences
  • opportunities for training and treatment
A
  1. BARTOL suggested that prison can be brutal, demanding and devisating. in the last 20 years suicide has been 15 times higher than those of the general population. this shows custodial sentencing is not effective in rehabilitating the individual.
  2. prison may be psychologically challenging it can’t be assumed that all offenders react in the same way. different prisons have different experiences. length of sentencing can impact. pre-existing psychological difficulties may have an impact.
  3. support for rehabilitation. prisoners access education and training which increases chances of employment on release. treatments such as anger management may help reduce recidivism.
43
Q

behaviour modification

A
  • behaviour modification programmes aim to reinforce obedient behaviour in offenders and punish disobedient behaviour.
  • this occurs in prison through a token economy system.
44
Q

token economy

A
  • token economies are based on operant conditioning and involve reinforcing desirable behaviour with a token that can be exchanged for a reward.
  • in prison, desirable behaviour may be avoiding conflict, following rules, and keeping the cell orderly.
  • tokens are secondary reinforcers as they derive in value from their association with a reward.
  • rewards may include a phone call, gym, food.
45
Q

Changing behaviour

A
  • desirable behaviour is identified and broken down into small steps in the programme.
  • behaviours are reinforced and decided upon, and all those who come into contact with offender must follow the regime of selective reinforcement.
  • prison officers reinforce a prisoner working positively.
46
Q

Research examples (psychologists?)

A
  • HOBBS AND HOLT used a token economy programme with groups of young delinquents. They found a difference in positive behaviour compared to the non token economy.
47
Q

EVALUATION

  • easy to implement
  • little rehabilitative value (psychologist?)
  • ethical issues
A
  1. There is no need for expertise as there would be in other programmes. They can be implemented by anyone and in any institution. They are cost-effective and easy to follow.
  2. BLACKBURN suggests behaviour modification has little rehabilitive value, and positive changes are lost upon release. The token economy is appropriate in prison but unlikely to extend beyond custodial senatcing.
  3. Terms and conditions of behaviour modification as manipulative and dehumanising. Participation is obligatory for all rather than optional. Ultimately, the offender chooses whether to comply with the scheme or break the rules. However, a programme involving withdrawal of privileges such as exercise and contact to family is ethically questionable.
48
Q

Anger management CBT (psychologist?)

A
  • NOVACO suggested that cognitive factors trigger aggressive acts.
  • anger management programmes are a form of CBT where the individual is taught how to recognise when they are losing control. They are encouraged to develop techniques that bring about conflict resolution.
49
Q

What are the 3 stages?

A
  1. Cognitive preparation
    The offender reflects on past experience, and they identify situations that trigger anger. If the offender interprets the event is irrational, then the therapist should make that clear.
  2. Skill acquisition
    The offender is introduced to skills and techniques to help them deal with anger-provoking situations. Techniques may be positive self-talk, communication, relaxation, or meditation. This helps the offender control their emotions.
  3. Application practise
    Offender can practise their skills in a monitored environment. Offender and therapist can re-enact scenarios that have escalated anger in the past.
50
Q

example (psychologists?)

A
  • KEEN studied young offenders who were on an anger management programme.
  • there were initial issues with offenders not taking the course seriously.
  • the final outcome was positive. offenders had increased awareness of their anger management difficulties and increased capacity to exercise self control.
51
Q

EVALUATION

  • Eclectic approach
  • comparison with behaviour modification
  • limited long term effects (psychologists?)
A
  1. anger management works on different levels. it includes cognitive preparation to identify the precursors to anger. it applies a behavioural perspective when developing techniques of self management. finally a social approach when demonstrating skills in role play. it acknowledges that offending is a complex social and psychological activity.
  2. anger management tries to tackle on of the causes of offending and it addresses the thought processes that underlie offending behaviour. treatment programmes give offender a new insight into the causes of their criminality which enables them to discover ways of managing themselves.
  3. BLACKBURN found that anger management had a noticeable effect on offenders but only in the short term. the application phase relies on artificial role play which does not properly reflect all the possible triggers that could be present in a real life situation. this shows that they don’t have long term effectiveness.
52
Q

Restorative justice

A
  • criminals paying back victims
  • it is a process of managed collaboration between offender and victim based on principles of healing and empowerment.
  • a meeting is organised with a trained mentor
  • the victim can confront the offender
53
Q

Key features of the process

A
  • focus on accepting responsibility and positive change
  • less emphasis on punishment
  • focus on positive outcomes for survivors
54
Q

Variations of the process

A
  • restorative justice is flexible and can function as an..
    -alternative to prison
    -add on to community service
    -reduction to existing sentence
  • financial restitution
  • repairing damaged property themselves
55
Q

What is the restorative justice Council (RJC)

A
  • an independent body that establishes clear standards for the use of restorative justice and supports victims and professionals in the field.
56
Q

EVALUATION

  • diversity of programme
  • relies on offender showing remorse
  • expensive (psychologist?)
A
  1. There js a degree of flexibility in how the programmes can be administered. It has a wide range of applications in schools, hospitals, etc. This means the scheme can be adapted to individual situations.
  2. Success of rj depends on whether the offender feels remorse for their actions. Some may sign up just to avoid prison or reduce sentence. The victim may also have an ulterior motive to seek revenge.
  3. SHAPLAND found that every £1 spent of rj would save the criminal justice system £8 through reduced reoffending. However, the process requires a skilled and expensive individual to act as a mediator. The programmes also have high dropout rates, which makes it not so cost-effective.

psychology (7 decks)

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