relationships Flashcards
What is social exchange theory?
A theory which assumes that individuals are essentially selfish and therefore try and maximise the rewards (e.g. attention and affection) and minimise the costs (e.g. time and effort). Satisfaction and commitment is therefore dependent upon the profitability of the relationship (rewards-costs=profit). What constitutes as the rewards and costs is completely subjective and may change over time during the course of a relationship. Our perception of profitability is affected by the comparison level (CL) and the comparison level for alternatives (CLAlt) which is when we compare the current relationship to a past relationship or possible alternatives to the current relationship. If someone has had poor previous relationships the they may expect less from the relationship and if they have poor alternatives than they will look at the current relationship favourably.
Evaluate social exchange theory.
Research support - Sprecher longitudinal study of 101 student couples found that the exchange value that was most associated with relationship commitment was CLAlt. It was consistently negatively correlated with both relationship commitment and satisfaction.Explained that those who lack alternatives are likely to remain committed and satisfied but those who are committed and satisfied are also likely to de-value alternatives. HOWEVER - lacks population validity in terms of student couples. But other research with population validity as they looked into different couples found that greater relationship satisfaction was associated with CL and CLAlt.
Culture bias - has been suggested that economic theories can only be applied to western, individualistic cultures where personal profit is valued. it assumes that the person has a choice and that relationships are of a temporary nature. Thus it may difficult to apply to non-western societies.
Suggests we are self-centred and are likely to end a relationship when in a state of loss however many people remain in relationships which are low in rewards and high in costs. one reason could be because they have invested a lot into the relationship.
What is Rusbult’s investment model?
Suggests that a person commitment to a relationship is determined by 3 key factors: satisfaction with the relationship, quality of alternatives and level of investment. Satisfaction of the relationship is the feeling that the relationship is rewarding and this is based off of the outcomes of the relationship which are then compared to a personal standard of what constitutes as an acceptable outcome. The quality of alternatives is the belief that the relationship offers better rewards compared to alternatives on offer, but some may actually see no relationship as an attractive alternative. And finally the level of investment refers to anything that a person puts into a relationship that will be lost if they leave it e.g. mutual friends, property and possessions.
Evaluate equity theory.
Research support - researchers asked a 200 married couples to complete measures of equity and relationship satisfaction. Satisfaction was highest for those who perceived their relationship to be equitable. CRITICISM - we are not self centred - we are not happier when over benefitted.
Also similar findings were found that those who were under benefitted had the lowest overall level of satisfaction and those who over-benefitted often felt guilty whilst those who were equitable were the most satisfied.
Gender differences - women appear to be more sensitive to equity - as they were more likely to perceive themselves as more under-benefitted. Research on 1500 American couples found that a woman’s sense of being oder-benefitted was important in predicting later relationship disruption. Suggested that women may have a greater relationship focus than men.
Culture differences - emphasis on exchange and equity is a reflection of the individualistic capitalist work ethic values of America
Evaluate Rusbult’s investment model.
Research support - when women were interviewed in a shelter for battered women they found that when a woman’s investment was high and their alternatives were poor (E.g. had no where to live or lacked money) they were less likely to leave their partners.) However this does not explain why men stay in abusive relationships (gender bias). BUT another study looked into both men and women and found that investments were the most important predictor of whether someone would stay with a violent partner.
Argument that investment does not directly predict commitment to a relationship . Instead it was found that satisfaction and alternatives were more important factors in determining commitment.
Culture bias …… in some cultures break-ups are not socially accepted and it assumes choice.
What is equity theory?
Equity theory suggests that both partners level or profit should roughly be the same. However equity is not the same as equality, equity is more about balance and fairness rather than both partners having the same amount of rewards. Equity may be defined differently by each member of the relationship, as well as by outsiders. It also suggests that a perceived imbalance in the relationship or a lack of fairness will result in dissatisfaction, as it will be experienced as inequitable. The greater the imbalance, the more motivated the partner should be to put things right and re-establish equity. To re-establish inequity: you can restore actual equity (reducing inputs or increasing rewards to promote them), you can restore psychological equity (change your own views) or leave the relationship.
What are virtual relationships?
They refer to interpersonal relationships conducted through social networking sites on the internet (e.g. Facebook, twitter, instagram) rather than face-to-face.
What is Duck’s theory of relationship breakdown?
It is a theory that suggests relationships breakdown is a gradual process which takes place over time and goes through 4 different stages. Each phase is marked by one or both partners reaching a threshold.
The phases are:
Intra-psychic phase - one person is privately dissatisfied and considers ending the relationship, considers the costs of withdrawing from the relationship
Dyadic phase - they confront the partner and discuss their feelings, may attempt reconciliation
Social phase - partners may announce they are splitting, they will seek support from 3rd parties such as friends and family, there is usually negotiation.
Grave-dressing - the aftermath, retrospection, creation of a narrative about there relationship, there will often be a face-saving version of a break up story.
This does suggest that the relationship can be saved at any point in the relationship.
Evaluate Duck’s theory of relationship breakdown?
- Real world application to couples therapy, it can be used to prevent breakdown . It can be used when if you pay attention to the topics that people discuss then you can identify the stage in the breakdown progress so that if someone, for example, is in the intra-psychic phase then they may be asked to think about the strength of their relationship. May be used to apply appropriate interventions.
- Fails to consider complexity in relationship breakdown and the impact of the social phase depends on factors such as age (those who are older are more likely to be given the advice to save the relationship where as if you are younger you are more likely to be encouraged to leave), sexuality (if you are in a homosexual relationship it may not be safe to seek advice as the relationship may not be accepted), and culture (divorce is frowned upon in some cultures so they may not be able to talk about it - link to culture bias).
- Fails to consider the possibility of personal growth so it can be seen as incomplete - was revised to a 6 phase model (a new resurrection phase outlined personal growth) - support for this as a survey of undergraduates who had recently experienced a break up all said they experienced emotional distress and personal growth. Criticises original theory and supports the newer one.
What is self-disclosure?
The extent to which a person reveals personal information about themselves, and people will often disclose more intimate information to those who they like.
What are the different forms of virtual relationship and how do they differ from relationships that are face-to-face?
- Relationships that start online via dating sites and develop into face-to-face relationships
- Relationships that simultaneously operate as online via social networking and face-to-face
- Relationships that are purely online (e.g. online gamers)
There are differences due to self-disclosure and an absence of gating.
What is self-disclosure in virtual relationships?
It is the presentation of information publicly or privately, their level of anonymity is likely to impact the type and degree of self disclosure. It is suggested that when people self disclose when they have a wider audience (e.g. on Facebook) they will be more selective over the content as they have a lack of control over the audience.
What are the two theories of self disclosure in virtual relationships?
Hyper-personal model - virtual relationships involve greater disclosure and are more personal, it happens earlier in the relationship but they also tend to end more easily (boom and bust phenomenon). We are able to manipulate your self-image to make yourself look better .
Reduced cues theory - virtual relationships lack non-verbal cues which results in de-individuation. We lack the normal cues we would have in a face-to-face relationship. VR are more likely to involve blunt and aggressive communication with a reluctance to self-disclose.
Evaluate the two theories of self disclosure in virtual relationships?
Reduced cues theory - has no supporting evidence. Lacks temporal validity (online communication has evolved).
Hyper-personal model - supporting evidence - SULER - more likely to self-disclose the greater the level of anonymity and this was referred to as the online disinhibition effect. However was found that there are factors which effect this self disclosure e.g. age - younger more likely, gender - women more, and type of anonymity (more likely to if they posted photos of themselves).
Support for the idea that we edit ourselves - studied the content of face updates and the effects of them - found that positive status updates increased feelings of connection and intimacy with Facebook friends. (But it has also been found that those who had lower self esteem had more negative disclosures and this led to undesirable responses from Facebook friends - we have to edit ourselves).
What is the absence of gating?
Gating refers to the obstacles or gates that get in the way of two people getting to know each other face-to-face (e.g. physical distance, physical appearance, personality characteristics), these features are less obvious online which enables individuals to develop interpersonal relationships more easily than face-to-face.
