Psychopathology

Question 1

What are the definitions of abnormality?

Answer 1

• Statistical infrequency
• Deviation from social norms
• Failure to function adequately
• Deviation from ideal mental health

Question 2

What is the explanation of phobias?

Answer 2

Behavioural approach - Operant and Classical conditioning.
Two process model - acquisition of the phobia through classical conditioning.
Maintenance of phobia - operant conditioning (Watson and Rayner - little albert)

Question 3

How do you treat phobias?

Answer 3

Systematic desensitisation - 1. learn relaxation, 2. heirarchy of fears, 3. start with 1st stage (least feared), 4. move through, 5. counterconditioning achieved.

Flooding - relaxation, 2/3hr session presented with worst fear.

Question 4

Evaluate the behaviourist approach as an explanation for phobias.

Answer 4

Not everyone can relate their phobia to an experience - possible that traumatic experiences that have happened could have been forgotten however Sue et al suggested that phobias are a result of different processes e.g. agoraphobe may have an incident, arachnophobe may be due to modelling.

Diathesis stress - genetic vulnerability to having a phobia, only people who have genetic vulnerability will be triggered by a specific incident. e.g. not everyone who is bitten by a dog will have a phobia of dogs, but those with a genetic vulnerability will develop one.

Biological preparedness - Seligman suggests we are genetically programmed to learn some dissociations faster, if it threatened out ancestors - Ancient fears. People more likely to be scared of heights but there is barely anyone with a fear of flowers.

Question 5

What are the fundamental beliefs of statistical infrequency?

Answer 5

• uses quantitative data
• can be described in terms of typical values: mean mode and median
• can be shown on normal distribution curve
• behaviour judged to be abnormal if they are statistically uncommon

Question 6

Evaluate statistical infrequency

Answer 6

Cultural relativism

• some infrequent behaviours may be desirable (e.g. high iq) some frequent behaviour may be undesirable (e.g. depression)
• the precise cut off point might be subjective opinion e.g. if a lack of sleep is a symptom of depression, how many hours constitute as a ‘lack’/
• explains some abnormal behaviour e.g. iq

Question 7

What are the fundamental beliefs of deviation from social norms?

Answer 7

• socially based definition
• what is considered socially unacceptable is made by a larger group e.g. society
• deviating from established norms could lead to isolation of individual
• we have explicit and implicit social rules (can’t assault people and no screaming in public)

Question 8

Evaluate deviation from social norms?

Answer 8

Social norms change over time e.g. homosexuality, Russia being called insane for going against state

Cultural relativism - New guinea being known as a wild pig is socially acceptable. There is the danger of being ethnocentric

strength - helps society function well

Question 9

What are the fundamental beliefs of failure to function adequately?

Answer 9

• individual experiences psychological distress and feel unable to cope
• individual is aware they are suffering
• a measure of adequate functioning can be done using WHODAS (e.g. communication, getting around and participation in society)

Question 10

Evaluate failure to function adequately

Answer 10

Behaviour may be functional to the individual - crossdressing, transvestitism is listed as mental disorder in DSM

Cultural relativism - sleeping during the day

strength - we can measure objectively using WHODAS

Question 11

What are the fundamental beliefs of deviation from ideal mental health?

Answer 11

• based on humanistic approach
• maintaining optimal mental health
• Jahoda suggested six categories to help:
  self attitude, personal growth, coping ability, independence, accurate perception of reality and ability to adjust to new situations.

Question 12

Evaluate deviation from ideal mental health.

Answer 12

cultural relativism - collectivist cultures encourage working for the good of the community rather than personal good.

ideals are hard to achieve - most people would be lacking in the categories and there is no indication of how many categories need to be present.

strength - it is a positivist approach

Question 13

Evaluate systematic desensitisation.

Answer 13

Effectiveness - researcher found the ability to tolerate imagined stressful situations is followed by a reduction in anxiety producing real life situations.
McGrath found that 75% of patients with phobias respond to SD and that in vivo techniques (in person) are more successful.

Appropriateness - researcher found that it may not be effective in treating ancient fears (fears that have an underlying evolutionary survival component as in the past it gave us an adaptive advantage and then the genes were naturally selected and inherited) than in treating those acquired due to personal experiences.

Relaxation may not be necessary - success is due to exposure rather than relaxation or expectations of being able to cope with the stimulus. Researchers have compared SD with supporting psychotherapy for patients with specific phobias.

Question 14

Evaluate flooding.

Answer 14

Effectiveness - for those who stick with it it is very effective and relatively quick and researchers have argued that out of flooding and SD, flooding was more effective. However others have concluded that they were equally effective.

Appropriateness - there are individual differences, it is a highly traumatic procedure so some may quit during treatment which would reduce the effectiveness and this could reinforce the phobia through avoidance=reward. Might be more appropriate for people with specific characteristics.

Question 15

What is the biological approach to explaining OCD?

Answer 15

Include genetics, the brain and neurotransmitters in the brain.

Question 16

What is the genetic explanation of OCD?

Answer 16

The COMT gene - regulates high dopamine production/specific variation of this causes high dopamine levels which is associated with OCD.

The SERT gene - transports serotonin but mutation leads to low levels of serotonin - which is another symptom of OCD.

Diathesis stress suggests that those with the variation have genetic predisposition to acquire this mental disorder when they come into a specific environment, although not everyone with the predisposition will be triggered by the environment.

Question 17

What is the neural explanation of OCD?

Answer 17

High levels of dopamine - animal studies have shown stereotyped movement similar to OCD.

Low levels of serotonin - when people take SSRI’s the symptoms of OCD reduce.

Those with OCD might have abnormalities in their frontal lobes (the caudate nucleus in the basal ganglia has damage) The CN is supposed to filter worry signals from the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) which sends these signals to the thalamus. When the CN is damaged it will not filter so all the worry signals go to the thalamus. Malfunction is a result of neurotransmitters - serotonin linked with OFC and dopamine located in the basal ganglia.

Question 18

Evaluate the biological approach to explaining OCD.

Answer 18

Researcher found that with a first degree relative we are 5x more likely to develop it compared to the general population. A meta-analysis showed that MZ twins are 2x more likely to develop OCD if their twin had it than DZ twins however concordance was never 100% with a genetic disorder, the environment must have a role also.

there are no disorder specific genes as it was found OCD involved with the same gene as tourettes syndrome. The obsessional behaviour is also found in children with autism and in anorexia nervosa. Also has been found that 2/3 of patients with OCD suffer with depression at least once. This suggests not a single gene which causes OCD. But a gene that leads to obsessive behaviour which leaves people with a genetic vulnerability to develop the disorder through environments.

There are alternatives to biological explanations, the two process model - acquisition when the NS (e.g. dirt) is paired with the ucs. It is maintained through avoidance. Supported by exposure response prevention therapy, people are presented with fear stimulus but prevented from carrying out the compulsive behaviour- has been found to be very successful.

Question 19

What is the biological treatment for OCD?

Answer 19

Anti-depressant - SSRI’s- selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors - increases serotonin levels - normalize the worry circuit.. Inhibit the reabsorption of serotonin after it has been received by the receptor cells, this increases levels at the synapse and increases stimulation of the neurotransmitter.

Tricyclics - blocks the transporter mechanism that reabsorbs noradrenaline and serotonin so that more of the neurotransmitters are left in the synapse, therefore prolonging their activity. These are used for parkinsons aswell and bipolar.

Anti-anxietys - e.g. benzodiazepine, work by enhancing the action of the neurotransmitter GABA. GABA tells the neurons in the brain to slow down, so BZs have a general quieting influence on the brain and therefore reduce anxiety.

Question 20

Evaluate the biological treatment for OCD.

Answer 20

Effectiveness - considerable evidence for being effective using randomised control trials (drug vs placebo). Researchers reviewed 17 studies that used SSRI’s on OCD patients and found them to be more effective at reducing symptoms than placebos for up to 3 months after treatment (short term effective). However there is little long-term evidence as most studies last 3/4 months.

Advantages of drug therapy- to the individual it requires little effort unlike CBT where the patient has to attend regular meetings. for the health service it is cheaper than psychological treatments such a talking to a doctor and requires little monitoring

Possible side effects:
SSRI’s - nausea, headaches and insomnia
Tricyclics - irregular heartbeat, hallucinations (these are only used when SSRI’s are not effective).
BZ’s - increased aggressiveness, long term impaired memory and are addictive.