Relationships Flashcards
What are the evolutionary theory explanations of partner preferences?
- Partner preferences are driven by sexual selection.
- This means that both males and females choose partners in order to maximise their chances of reproductive success.
What traits will maximise reproductive success?
- Strength, height, aggression, wide hips
- Individuals with these traits are more likely to survive and pass on the genes responsible for their success.
Why do makes and females use distinct strategies to choose a partner?
- Due to anisogamy
- Males have gametes (sperm cells), which are able to reproduce quickly with little energy expenditure.
- Female gametes (eggs or ova) are much less plentiful and require far more energy to produce.
What type of selection do males use?
Intra-sexual selection
What type of selection do females use?
Inter-sexual selection
What is intra-sexual selection ?
- Intra-sexual selection is where members of one sex (usually male) compete with one another for access to the other sex.
- This leads to male-female dimorphism, which is accentuation of secondary sexual characteristics in those with greater reproductive fitness.
What is a male’s best evolutionary strategy according to anisogamy?
- To have as many partners as possible.
- Males must compete with other males to present themselves as the most attractive mate to fertile female partners.
What is mate guarding?
Males guard their female partner to prevent them mating with anyone else.
Why do males engage in mate guarding?
Males are very fearful of having to raise another man’s child (cuckoldry)
What is inter-sexual selection?
Where members of one sex (usually female) choose from available prospective mates (usually males) according to attractiveness.
What is a woman’s best evolutionary strategy according to anisogamy?
- To be selective when choosing a partner
- Females will tend to seek a male who displays characteristics of physical health, high status, and resources.
- Thus the male partner is able to protect them and provide for their children.
- Although this ability may have equated to muscular strength in our evolutionary past, in modern society it is more likely to relate to occupation, social class and wealth.
Strengths of evolutionary explanations of partner preferences?
+ Buss (1989) conducted a survey of over 10,000 adults in 33 countries and found that females reported valuing resource-based characteristics (such as occupation) whilst men valued good looks and preferred younger partners.
+ Clark and Hatfield (1989) conducted a now infamous study where male and female psychology students were asked to approach fellow students of Florida State University (of the opposite sex) and ask them for one of three things; to go on a date, to go back to their apartment, or to go to bed with them. About 50% of both men and women agreed to the date, but whilst 69% of men agreed to visit the apartment and 75% agreed to go to bed with them, only 6% of women agreed to go to the apartment and 0% accepted the more intimate offer.
Weaknesses of evolutionary explanations of partner preferences?
- The evolutionary approach is determinist suggesting that we have little free- will in partner choice. However, everyday experience tells us we do have some control over our partner preferences.
- Evolutionary approaches to mate preferences are socially sensitive in that they promote traditional (sexist) views regarding what are ‘natural’ male and female behaviors which do not apply to modern society. Women are now more career orientated and independent therefore will not look for resourceful partners as much as they may have had to in decades past. Additionally, the availability of contraception means that evolutionary pressures are less relevant.
- Evolutionary theory makes little attempt to explain other types of relationships, e.g. non-heterosexual relationships, and cultural variations in relationships which exist across the world, e.g. arranged marriages.
What is self- disclosure?
- This is the revealing of personal information, such as thoughts, feelings and experiences to another person.
- This can affect attraction in romantic relationships.
What theory is self- disclosure a part of?
Social penetration theory
Who proposed the social penetration theory?
Altman and Taylor (1973)
What is the social penetration theory?
- This theory claims that by gradually revealing emotions and experiences to their partner, couples gain a greater understanding of each other and display trust.
- Therefore, self-disclosure will increase attraction.
How does self-disclosure affect a relationship?
- As people build trust in their partner, the breadth and depth of self-disclosure will increase.
- In the beginning, people only disclose superficial details about themselves, such as hobbies and interests, and gradually reveal more intimate details, such as family values and difficult experiences.
- Self-disclosing too quickly (e.g. on a first date) can reduce attraction.
What is reciprocal self-disclosure?
- People expect the same level of self-disclosure from others as they actually give.
- The more self-disclosure someone gives, the more self-disclosure they expect in return.
- This is known as reciprocal self-disclosure.
Strengths of self-disclosure
+ Research conducted by Altman and Taylor (1973) supports the theory of self- disclosure. They found that self-disclosure on the first date is inappropriate and did not increase attraction levels. The person who was self-disclosing was seen as maladjusted and not very likeable.
+ Tal-Or (2015) conducted research which agrees which the fundamental concept of self-disclosure being a gradual process that can affect attraction for romantic relationships. Analysis of reality TV shows like Big Brother revealed that viewers did not like contestants who self-disclosed early on. They preferred the contestant who self-disclosed gradually.
+ Kito (2010) found research evidence to support the idea of self-disclosure across different cultures. Kito investigated Japanese and American students in different types of relationships, and found that self-disclosure was high for Japanese and American students in romantic relationships that were heterosexual.
Weaknesses of self-disclosure
- Sprecher (2013) found research evidence that the level of self-disclosure received is the best predictor of liking and loving, rather than the amount of self-disclosure given. This goes against the idea of reciprocal self-disclosure.
- It seems unlikely that attraction to a potential partner is based on self- disclosure alone. Self-disclosure might be an important element, but other factors are also needed in order to increase attraction, such as physical attraction, similarity of attitudes and complementarity of needs.
How does physical attractiveness affect attraction in romantic relationships?
- Men place a great deal of importance on physical attractiveness when choosing a female partner in the short- term and the long- term.
- Research has shown that physical attractiveness is also very important for females when choosing a male partner, especially in the short- term (it is less important in the long- term).
- What is considered to be physically attractive varies across culture and time.
What is the halo effect?
The halo effect is when the general impression of a person is incorrectly formed from one characteristic alone (e.g. physical attractiveness).
How are physically attractive people seen?
Physically attractive people are often seen as more sociable, optimistic, successful and trustworthy.
How do people tend to behave towards physically attractive people?
- People tend to behave positively towards people who are physically attractive and this creates a self-fulfilling prophecy where the physically attractive person behaves even more positively because of the positive attention they receive.
Strengths of the halo effect
Palmer and Peterson (201 2) found that physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable than unattractive people. The halo effect was so powerful that it persisted even when participants found out that the physically attractive person had no expertise in politics.
Weaknesses of the halo effect
Towhey (1979) asked male and female participants to rate how much they liked an individual based on a photograph. Participants also completed a MACHO scale which measured sexist attitudes and behaviour. It was found that participants who scored highly on the MACHO scale were more influenced by physical attractiveness. Those who scored low on the questionnaire did not value physical attractiveness. Therefore, the influence of physical attractiveness is moderated by other factors (e. g. personality).
What is the matching hypothesis?
- When initiating romantic relationships, individuals seek partners that have the same social desirability as themselves.
- Physical attractiveness becomes the major determining factor as it is an accessible way for each person to rate the other person as a potential partner before forming a relationship.
How do people form a relationship based off of physical attractiveness?
Most people would prefer to form a relationship with someone who is physically attractive but in order to not be rejected, many people will approach others who are of a similar level of attractiveness to themselves.
Strengths of the matching hypothesis
Fangold (1988) found supportive evidence for the matching hypothesis by carrying out a meta- analysis of 17 studies using real- life couples. He established a strong positive correlation between the partners’ ratings of physical attractiveness, just as predicted by the matching hypothesis.
Weaknesses of the matching hypothesis
- Walster (1 966) invited 752 first- year students at the University of Minnesota to attend a dance party. They were randomly matched to a partner; however, when students were picking up their tickets, they were secretly judged by a panel in terms of physical attractiveness. At the dance party, and 4 to 6 months later, students were asked whether they found their partner attractive and whether they would like to go on a second date with them. Contrary to the matching hypothesis students expressed higher appreciation of their partner if the partner was attractive, regardless of their own level of attractiveness.
- Sometimes a very physically attractive person forms a relationship with an unattractive person. Often a rebalance of traits will occur, whereby the less physically attractive person has some other traits to make up for their lack of physical attractiveness (e. g. being rich, having a high status or great personality). This is called complex matching whereby a very attractive person forms a relationship with an unattractive person.
What is the filter theory?
- Kerchoff and David (1962) proposed we use filtering to reduce the field of available partners down to a field of desirable partners.
- When we meet a potential partner we engage in three levels of filtering and we tend to be attracted to those who pass through the series of filters.
What are the three filters of the filter theory?
Social demography
Similarity in attitude
Complementarity of needs
Describe social demography
- It is important when people first meet
- We are attracted to people from similar backgrounds to our own.
- e.g. age, sec, education and social background
Describe similarity of attitude
- People tend to view others as more attractive if they share the same core beliefs and values, such as views on career and importance of family or religion and politics.
-Describe complementarity of needs
- This plays an important role in the long run
- We attracted to people who complement our traits
- Each of the partners have some traits that the other partner lacks, and helps each other fulfil their needs
Strengths of the filter theory
+ Research conducted by Taylor (2010) found evidence to support filter theory. He found that 85% of Americans who got married in 2008 had married someone from their own ethnic group, supporting the social demography part of filter theory. Individuals seem to choose partners that are similar to them and have a similar background to them.
+ Research conducted by Hoyle (1993) supports the filter theory when looking at the importance of attitude similarity and sharing common values for attraction. Hoyle found that perceived attitude similarity can predict attraction
more strongly than actual attitude similarity. Tidwell tested this hypothesis during a speed dating event whereby participants had to make quick decisions about attraction. He measured actual and perceived similarity of attitudes using a questionnaire and found that perceived similarity predicted romantic liking more than actual similarity.
Weaknesses of the filter theory
- Levinger (1970) conducted research using 330 couples and found no evidence that similarity of attitudes or complementarity of needs was important when looking at how permanent the relationship was.
- Filter theory has been criticised because it suggests that people are attracted to each other because they have similar social demography. Anderson (2003) found from his longitudinal study of cohabiting partners that they became more similar in terms of their attitudes and emotional responses over time which increased attraction. At the start of the relationship, their attitudes were not so similar. This is called emotional convergence.
- Research using online dating has shown a lack of support for filter theory in that it might not be an accurate way to see how relationships progress and form. The internet has meant that there is a reduction in social demographic variables when we meet someone, and it is now easier to meet people who live far away, or who have a different ethnicity, social class and background. We might meet people who are outside of our demographic limits, and this is very apparent now, compared to the past (30 years ago).
What is the social exchange theory?
- This theory is based on the idea that relationships are, “like a business” whereby we monitor the rewards (fun, attention, esteem, etc.) and the costs (time, emotional strain, etc.).
- We all want the maximum rewards from a relationship and the minimum costs.
What relationships will succeed?
Relationships that are mutually beneficial
What is Comparison level?
When we compare our present relationship to previous relationships
What is comparison level for alternatives?
When we compare our present partner with people around us who we could potentially have a relationship with.
What happens if our current relationship is not satisfactory?
We look around for a ‘better deal’.
Strengths of the social exchange theory
+ Gottman (1992) found evidence that supports the social exchange theory. He found that individuals in unsuccessful marriages frequently report a lack of positive behaviour exchanges with their partner, and an excess of negative exchanges. In successful marriages where the relationship is happy, the ratio or positive to negative exchanges is 5:1, but in unsuccessful marriages the ratio is 1:1.
+ Social Exchange Theory has practical applications. Integrated couples therapy (Jacobson, 2000) helps partners to break negative patterns of
behaviours and to decrease negative exchanges, whilst increasing positive exchanges. 66% of couples reported significant improvements in their relationship after receiving this form of therapy.
+ Different people perceive rewards and costs differently so this theory can account for individual differences in attraction.
Weaknesses of the social exchange theory?
- Moghaddam (1998) has criticised the social exchange theory, as it is more applicable to individualistic cultures than collectivist cultures. The perceived costs and rewards of relationships might be very different from one culture to the next. Family values and compatibility might be more important rewards in collectivist cultures. In individualist cultures, rewards might be viewed as a partner buying expensive presents.
- Critics of this theory disagree with the idea that people spend a great deal of time monitoring their relationship in terms of rewards and costs. They argue that people only monitor rewards and costs once the relationship becomes dissatisfying. For instance, we only look at comparison levels in a relationship when we are already dissatisfied, not when we are happy and the relationship is successful.
- The social exchange theory is rooted in the Behaviourist Approach whereby the focus of relationship maintenance is about rewards and operant conditioning. However, some relationships have little rewards but many costs, (e.g. violent relationships) and yet but they still continue.
What it is the equity theory?
- Equity theory states that people will expect to receive rewards from a relationship that are proportional to the rewards that they give the other person.
- People in a relationship will aim to achieve fairness and equity in their relationship so that the relationship can continue.
