Relationships Flashcards
What are the evolutionary theory explanations of partner preferences?
- Partner preferences are driven by sexual selection.
- This means that both males and females choose partners in order to maximise their chances of reproductive success.
What traits will maximise reproductive success?
- Strength, height, aggression, wide hips
- Individuals with these traits are more likely to survive and pass on the genes responsible for their success.
Why do makes and females use distinct strategies to choose a partner?
- Due to anisogamy
- Males have gametes (sperm cells), which are able to reproduce quickly with little energy expenditure.
- Female gametes (eggs or ova) are much less plentiful and require far more energy to produce.
What type of selection do males use?
Intra-sexual selection
What type of selection do females use?
Inter-sexual selection
What is intra-sexual selection ?
- Intra-sexual selection is where members of one sex (usually male) compete with one another for access to the other sex.
- This leads to male-female dimorphism, which is accentuation of secondary sexual characteristics in those with greater reproductive fitness.
What is a male’s best evolutionary strategy according to anisogamy?
- To have as many partners as possible.
- Males must compete with other males to present themselves as the most attractive mate to fertile female partners.
What is mate guarding?
Males guard their female partner to prevent them mating with anyone else.
Why do males engage in mate guarding?
Males are very fearful of having to raise another man’s child (cuckoldry)
What is inter-sexual selection?
Where members of one sex (usually female) choose from available prospective mates (usually males) according to attractiveness.
What is a woman’s best evolutionary strategy according to anisogamy?
- To be selective when choosing a partner
- Females will tend to seek a male who displays characteristics of physical health, high status, and resources.
- Thus the male partner is able to protect them and provide for their children.
- Although this ability may have equated to muscular strength in our evolutionary past, in modern society it is more likely to relate to occupation, social class and wealth.
Strengths of evolutionary explanations of partner preferences?
+ Buss (1989) conducted a survey of over 10,000 adults in 33 countries and found that females reported valuing resource-based characteristics (such as occupation) whilst men valued good looks and preferred younger partners.
+ Clark and Hatfield (1989) conducted a now infamous study where male and female psychology students were asked to approach fellow students of Florida State University (of the opposite sex) and ask them for one of three things; to go on a date, to go back to their apartment, or to go to bed with them. About 50% of both men and women agreed to the date, but whilst 69% of men agreed to visit the apartment and 75% agreed to go to bed with them, only 6% of women agreed to go to the apartment and 0% accepted the more intimate offer.
Weaknesses of evolutionary explanations of partner preferences?
- The evolutionary approach is determinist suggesting that we have little free- will in partner choice. However, everyday experience tells us we do have some control over our partner preferences.
- Evolutionary approaches to mate preferences are socially sensitive in that they promote traditional (sexist) views regarding what are ‘natural’ male and female behaviors which do not apply to modern society. Women are now more career orientated and independent therefore will not look for resourceful partners as much as they may have had to in decades past. Additionally, the availability of contraception means that evolutionary pressures are less relevant.
- Evolutionary theory makes little attempt to explain other types of relationships, e.g. non-heterosexual relationships, and cultural variations in relationships which exist across the world, e.g. arranged marriages.
What is self- disclosure?
- This is the revealing of personal information, such as thoughts, feelings and experiences to another person.
- This can affect attraction in romantic relationships.
What theory is self- disclosure a part of?
Social penetration theory
Who proposed the social penetration theory?
Altman and Taylor (1973)
What is the social penetration theory?
- This theory claims that by gradually revealing emotions and experiences to their partner, couples gain a greater understanding of each other and display trust.
- Therefore, self-disclosure will increase attraction.
How does self-disclosure affect a relationship?
- As people build trust in their partner, the breadth and depth of self-disclosure will increase.
- In the beginning, people only disclose superficial details about themselves, such as hobbies and interests, and gradually reveal more intimate details, such as family values and difficult experiences.
- Self-disclosing too quickly (e.g. on a first date) can reduce attraction.
What is reciprocal self-disclosure?
- People expect the same level of self-disclosure from others as they actually give.
- The more self-disclosure someone gives, the more self-disclosure they expect in return.
- This is known as reciprocal self-disclosure.
Strengths of self-disclosure
+ Research conducted by Altman and Taylor (1973) supports the theory of self- disclosure. They found that self-disclosure on the first date is inappropriate and did not increase attraction levels. The person who was self-disclosing was seen as maladjusted and not very likeable.
+ Tal-Or (2015) conducted research which agrees which the fundamental concept of self-disclosure being a gradual process that can affect attraction for romantic relationships. Analysis of reality TV shows like Big Brother revealed that viewers did not like contestants who self-disclosed early on. They preferred the contestant who self-disclosed gradually.
+ Kito (2010) found research evidence to support the idea of self-disclosure across different cultures. Kito investigated Japanese and American students in different types of relationships, and found that self-disclosure was high for Japanese and American students in romantic relationships that were heterosexual.
Weaknesses of self-disclosure
- Sprecher (2013) found research evidence that the level of self-disclosure received is the best predictor of liking and loving, rather than the amount of self-disclosure given. This goes against the idea of reciprocal self-disclosure.
- It seems unlikely that attraction to a potential partner is based on self- disclosure alone. Self-disclosure might be an important element, but other factors are also needed in order to increase attraction, such as physical attraction, similarity of attitudes and complementarity of needs.
How does physical attractiveness affect attraction in romantic relationships?
- Men place a great deal of importance on physical attractiveness when choosing a female partner in the short- term and the long- term.
- Research has shown that physical attractiveness is also very important for females when choosing a male partner, especially in the short- term (it is less important in the long- term).
- What is considered to be physically attractive varies across culture and time.
What is the halo effect?
The halo effect is when the general impression of a person is incorrectly formed from one characteristic alone (e.g. physical attractiveness).
How are physically attractive people seen?
Physically attractive people are often seen as more sociable, optimistic, successful and trustworthy.
How do people tend to behave towards physically attractive people?
- People tend to behave positively towards people who are physically attractive and this creates a self-fulfilling prophecy where the physically attractive person behaves even more positively because of the positive attention they receive.
Strengths of the halo effect
Palmer and Peterson (201 2) found that physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable than unattractive people. The halo effect was so powerful that it persisted even when participants found out that the physically attractive person had no expertise in politics.
Weaknesses of the halo effect
Towhey (1979) asked male and female participants to rate how much they liked an individual based on a photograph. Participants also completed a MACHO scale which measured sexist attitudes and behaviour. It was found that participants who scored highly on the MACHO scale were more influenced by physical attractiveness. Those who scored low on the questionnaire did not value physical attractiveness. Therefore, the influence of physical attractiveness is moderated by other factors (e. g. personality).
What is the matching hypothesis?
- When initiating romantic relationships, individuals seek partners that have the same social desirability as themselves.
- Physical attractiveness becomes the major determining factor as it is an accessible way for each person to rate the other person as a potential partner before forming a relationship.
How do people form a relationship based off of physical attractiveness?
Most people would prefer to form a relationship with someone who is physically attractive but in order to not be rejected, many people will approach others who are of a similar level of attractiveness to themselves.
Strengths of the matching hypothesis
Fangold (1988) found supportive evidence for the matching hypothesis by carrying out a meta- analysis of 17 studies using real- life couples. He established a strong positive correlation between the partners’ ratings of physical attractiveness, just as predicted by the matching hypothesis.
Weaknesses of the matching hypothesis
- Walster (1 966) invited 752 first- year students at the University of Minnesota to attend a dance party. They were randomly matched to a partner; however, when students were picking up their tickets, they were secretly judged by a panel in terms of physical attractiveness. At the dance party, and 4 to 6 months later, students were asked whether they found their partner attractive and whether they would like to go on a second date with them. Contrary to the matching hypothesis students expressed higher appreciation of their partner if the partner was attractive, regardless of their own level of attractiveness.
- Sometimes a very physically attractive person forms a relationship with an unattractive person. Often a rebalance of traits will occur, whereby the less physically attractive person has some other traits to make up for their lack of physical attractiveness (e. g. being rich, having a high status or great personality). This is called complex matching whereby a very attractive person forms a relationship with an unattractive person.
What is the filter theory?
- Kerchoff and David (1962) proposed we use filtering to reduce the field of available partners down to a field of desirable partners.
- When we meet a potential partner we engage in three levels of filtering and we tend to be attracted to those who pass through the series of filters.
What are the three filters of the filter theory?
Social demography
Similarity in attitude
Complementarity of needs
Describe social demography
- It is important when people first meet
- We are attracted to people from similar backgrounds to our own.
- e.g. age, sec, education and social background
Describe similarity of attitude
- People tend to view others as more attractive if they share the same core beliefs and values, such as views on career and importance of family or religion and politics.
-Describe complementarity of needs
- This plays an important role in the long run
- We attracted to people who complement our traits
- Each of the partners have some traits that the other partner lacks, and helps each other fulfil their needs
Strengths of the filter theory
+ Research conducted by Taylor (2010) found evidence to support filter theory. He found that 85% of Americans who got married in 2008 had married someone from their own ethnic group, supporting the social demography part of filter theory. Individuals seem to choose partners that are similar to them and have a similar background to them.
+ Research conducted by Hoyle (1993) supports the filter theory when looking at the importance of attitude similarity and sharing common values for attraction. Hoyle found that perceived attitude similarity can predict attraction
more strongly than actual attitude similarity. Tidwell tested this hypothesis during a speed dating event whereby participants had to make quick decisions about attraction. He measured actual and perceived similarity of attitudes using a questionnaire and found that perceived similarity predicted romantic liking more than actual similarity.
Weaknesses of the filter theory
- Levinger (1970) conducted research using 330 couples and found no evidence that similarity of attitudes or complementarity of needs was important when looking at how permanent the relationship was.
- Filter theory has been criticised because it suggests that people are attracted to each other because they have similar social demography. Anderson (2003) found from his longitudinal study of cohabiting partners that they became more similar in terms of their attitudes and emotional responses over time which increased attraction. At the start of the relationship, their attitudes were not so similar. This is called emotional convergence.
- Research using online dating has shown a lack of support for filter theory in that it might not be an accurate way to see how relationships progress and form. The internet has meant that there is a reduction in social demographic variables when we meet someone, and it is now easier to meet people who live far away, or who have a different ethnicity, social class and background. We might meet people who are outside of our demographic limits, and this is very apparent now, compared to the past (30 years ago).
What is the social exchange theory?
- This theory is based on the idea that relationships are, “like a business” whereby we monitor the rewards (fun, attention, esteem, etc.) and the costs (time, emotional strain, etc.).
- We all want the maximum rewards from a relationship and the minimum costs.
What relationships will succeed?
Relationships that are mutually beneficial
What is Comparison level?
When we compare our present relationship to previous relationships
What is comparison level for alternatives?
When we compare our present partner with people around us who we could potentially have a relationship with.
What happens if our current relationship is not satisfactory?
We look around for a ‘better deal’.
Strengths of the social exchange theory
+ Gottman (1992) found evidence that supports the social exchange theory. He found that individuals in unsuccessful marriages frequently report a lack of positive behaviour exchanges with their partner, and an excess of negative exchanges. In successful marriages where the relationship is happy, the ratio or positive to negative exchanges is 5:1, but in unsuccessful marriages the ratio is 1:1.
+ Social Exchange Theory has practical applications. Integrated couples therapy (Jacobson, 2000) helps partners to break negative patterns of
behaviours and to decrease negative exchanges, whilst increasing positive exchanges. 66% of couples reported significant improvements in their relationship after receiving this form of therapy.
+ Different people perceive rewards and costs differently so this theory can account for individual differences in attraction.
Weaknesses of the social exchange theory?
- Moghaddam (1998) has criticised the social exchange theory, as it is more applicable to individualistic cultures than collectivist cultures. The perceived costs and rewards of relationships might be very different from one culture to the next. Family values and compatibility might be more important rewards in collectivist cultures. In individualist cultures, rewards might be viewed as a partner buying expensive presents.
- Critics of this theory disagree with the idea that people spend a great deal of time monitoring their relationship in terms of rewards and costs. They argue that people only monitor rewards and costs once the relationship becomes dissatisfying. For instance, we only look at comparison levels in a relationship when we are already dissatisfied, not when we are happy and the relationship is successful.
- The social exchange theory is rooted in the Behaviourist Approach whereby the focus of relationship maintenance is about rewards and operant conditioning. However, some relationships have little rewards but many costs, (e.g. violent relationships) and yet but they still continue.
What it is the equity theory?
- Equity theory states that people will expect to receive rewards from a relationship that are proportional to the rewards that they give the other person.
- People in a relationship will aim to achieve fairness and equity in their relationship so that the relationship can continue.
What will happen of the relationship is unfair?
- Distress will be felt.
How will people feel if they over benefit.
If people over-benefit in their relationship and receive more rewards than their partner they might feel guilt or pity.
How will people feel if they under-benefit?
If people under-benefit in their relationship and receive less rewards than their partner, they might feel angry or sad.
How will this imbalance affect a relationship?
An imbalance of rewards can be tolerated as long as both parties accept the situation; then the relationship will continue.
What does Equity mean in a relationship
- Equity does not always mean equality.
- Equity also means “fairness,” and each person in the relationship must feel that the relationship is fair.
- An equitable relationship has a fair ratio of rewards and costs for each individual.
Strengths of the equity theory?
+ DeMaris (2007) studied 1500 couples as part of the US National Survey of Families and Households. He found that if women were under-benefitting to a high degree, then there was a high risk of divorce occurring. Therefore equity and inequity seem to be very important for women in a relationship.
+ Brosnan (2003) found that female monkeys became angry if they were denied a prize (grapes) for playing a game with a researcher, especially if they saw another monkey who had not played the game receive the grapes instead. The monkeys got so angry that they hurled food at the experimenter. It seems that ideas of equity are rooted in our ancient origins.
Weaknesses of the equity theory
- Equity theory is more applicable to individualistic cultures rather than collectivist cultures. In individualistic cultures people might be more concerned with equal rewards and costs in order for a relationship to be successful. However, in collectivist cultures, extended family networks and family values might be more important when maintaining a relationship, rather than focusing on rewards and costs and the idea of equity. Relationships in collectivist cultures might be successful due to cultural expectations and obligations of roles rather than equity of rewards and costs.
- Buunk (1996) found no association between equity in a relationship and the future quality and maintenance of a relationship. Therefore just because a relationship is equal and fair in terms of rewards and costs; it does not mean that the relationship will progress. People have free will to choose whether to continue with a relationship or not; and just because a relationship is equitable it does not mean the relationship will necessarily continue and last.
- Research conducted by Mills and Clark (1982) criticised equity theory. They said that it is not possible to assess equity in loving relationships, as many of the rewards and costs are emotional/psychological and cannot be easily quantified or measured. If we measure rewards and costs then it could diminish the quality of love in the relationship which could be damaging.
What is the investment model?
- Rusbult developed/extended social exchange theory by proposing the investment model.
- Rusbult saw commitment as a key factor in sustaining a relationship.
What factors does commitment depend on?
Commitment depends on satisfaction, comparison with alternatives and investment.
The role of satisfaction in the investment model
Satisfaction is determined by available alternatives, better alternatives equals less satisfaction.
The role of investments in the investment model
It acts as a deterrent to leaving a relationship
Types of investment
- Intrinsic investment
- Extrinsic investment
What is intrinsic investment?
Intrinsic investment refers to the resources put into the relationship directly (e.g. emotion, effort etc.)
What is extrinsic investment?
extrinsic investment refers to resources arising out of the relationship (e.g. children, mutual friends, possessions bought together etc.).
Strengths of the investment model
+ Research conducted by Van Lange (1997) supports Rusbult’s investment model. He studied students from Taiwan and from the Netherlands and found evidence that high commitment levels in a relationship were related to high satisfaction, low quality of alternatives and high investment size.
+ The investment model is very useful because it can help explain infidelity. This might occur if a person’s current relationship has low satisfaction and there is a high quality of alternative. Both of these factors would lessen the commitment levels and the present relationship is likely to end. Investment model can also explain why some people might stay in abusive relationships; the satisfaction is low and the victim should really leave the relationship. However, they might stay in the abusive relationship because there are a low quality of alternatives and
the investment in the present relationship is too high, e.g. they have children together.
+ Investment model has the strength of being applied to explain the factor of commitment in a variety of different relationships. Rusbult administered investment model scale questionnaires to participants in homosexual relationships and found that all factors of the investment model were found to be important when looking at commitment.
Weaknesses of the investment model
- Investment model has been criticised because it is very difficult to measure the factors of commitment, satisfaction, investment and quality of alternatives. Rusbult responded to this criticism and constructed an investment model scale which could measure each of the key variables in a reliable and valid way. The research that Rusbult conducted using these scales involved self- reports, and this then created further problems of social desirability bias.
- Lin (1995) criticises investment model because it does not take into account gender differences that might exist when looking at relationships. Lin (1995) found that females tend to report higher satisfaction, poorer quality of alternatives, greater investment and stronger commitment in relationships compared to males.
What is Duck’s phase model of relationship breakdown?
- Relationship breakdown or termination occurs when one or both people in the relationship feel that the relationship is not working, and therefore wish the relationship to end.
- According to Duck, there are four phases in the breakdown of a relationship.
What are the four phases in the breakdown of a relationship?
1) Intra-psychic processes
2) Dyadic Processes
3) Social Processes
4) Grave Dressing Processes
What is the Intra-psychic process?
- This is characterised by the dissatisfied
partner privately thinking about their relationship and brooding about the problems they have identified. - The dissatisfied partner focuses on their partner’s faults and the fact that they are under-benefitting from the relationship.
- They might feel depressed and withdraw from social interactions with their partner.
What is the Dyadic process?
- The dissatisfied partner privately communicates with their partner about the fact that they are dissatisfied with the relationship.
- Both partners might think carefully about investments they have in the relationships e.g. house, children, joint possessions etc.
What could the outcomes of the Dyadic process be?
- There could be reconciliation if the partner accepts the validity of the dissatisfied partner’s views and promises to change their behaviour or makes agreements to sort out issues.
- Marital therapy might be useful at this point if the process becomes difficult.
- The dissatisfied partner might still believe that, “I would be justified in withdrawing from the relationship”, in which case, the breakdown process would continue.
What is the Social process?
- If there is a break up, it is made public to friends and family which means that the problem is harder to deny or ignore.
- Advice and support are given from people outside the relationships and alliances are made.
- This can involve criticising former partners and scapegoating.
How much the social process phase differ in older and younger people?
- Younger adults might experience breakdown very frequently in this period of their life, as they are striving to meet their ideal partner and are testing the market.
- Older couples experience breakdown less frequently, and some might be resigned to not finding a new partner in the future if the relationship breaks down.
What is the Grave dressing process?
- As the relationship dies and breaks down,
there is the need to mourn and justify our actions. We need to create an account of what the relationship was like and why it broke down. - Ex- partners begin their post relationship lives and begin to publicise accounts of how the relationship broke down, making sure their social credit remains high.
- Stories might be told about betrayal, or how they both struggled to make it work and different versions of the relationship are given to different people.
- Partners might reinterpret their point of view of their ex partners
Duck’s phase model of relationship breakdown strengths
+ Duck’s phase model was devised in 1982. However, improvements have been made to the model as time has passed. Duck teamed up with a psychologist called Rollie in 2006 and introduced a fifth phase to this model called, the resurrection phase. This is where the person engages in personal growth and gets prepared for new romantic relationships.
+ Support for Duck’s phase model comes from the social exchange theory. This theory would support Duck’s phase model and would state that if a relationship has high costs and minimal rewards then the relationship is not worth continuing, but instead would breakdown.
Duck’s phase model of relationship breakdown weaknesses
- Akert (1998) has criticized Duck’s phase model. Akert found that the role that people had in deciding if the relationship should breakdown, was the most important prediction of the breakdown experience. Akert found that those who did not initiate the end of the relationship were the most miserable, lonely, depressed and angry in the weeks after the relationship ended. Those who initiate the break down were the least stressed and least upset, but did feel guilty.
- Duck’s phase model ignores gender differences that exist when analysing the breakdown of relationships. Kassin (1996) found research evidence to suggest that females emphasise unhappiness, lack of emotional support and incompatibility as reasons for relationship breakdown, whereas males state lack of sex and/or fun. Females often wish to stay friends with an ex-partner, but males would rather have a clean break and not stay friends.
- Duck’s phase model could be viewed as overly simplistic. It is reducing the complex phenomenon of relationship breakdown into four simple stages that must follow a specific order. In the real world it would seem unlikely that relationship breakdown can be compartmentalised or reduced into four basic stages. Relationship breakdown is very unpredictable, and it could be the case that breakdown does not happen in this chronological order. Some couples break up, make up, break up, etc.
How does self disclosure differ between face-to-face and virtual relationships?
self-disclosure tends to occur much faster in virtual relationships.
Why does self disclosure occur much faster in virtual relationships?
- There is anonymity
- People tend to hold off disclosing personal information in real life for fear of ridicule or rejection, unless they are confident that they can trust the person and that information won’t be leaked to mutual friends.
- However, there is much less risk of this in virtual relationships.
Who proposed the Hyperpersonal model?
Walther (2011)
What is the hyperpersonal model?
- Self-disclosure in virtual relationships happens faster than in face-to-face ones, virtual relationships quickly become more intense and feel more intimate and meaningful.
- They can also end more quickly, however, as it is difficult to sustain the same level of intense self-disclosure for a long time.
Why do virtual relationships feel more intimate?
Due to selective self-presentation
What is selective self-presentation?
- When participants have more time to edit their responses to present themselves in a more positive light.
- Projecting a positive image will make a virtual partner want to disclose more personal information, increasing the intensity of the relationship.
Strengths of the Hyperpersonal model
Whitty and Joinson (2009) conducted research which clearly demonstrates the effect of being online on self-disclosure. They discovered that in online discussion forums both questions and answers tend to be more direct, probing and intimate than in everyday face-to-face interactions, as the hyperpersonal model would predict.
Weaknesses of the Hyperpersonal model
- Research has found that relationships which begin online are more durable than other relationships, rather than ending more quickly as the hyperpersonal model suggests. This is because of more open self-disclosure early on in the relationship (McKenna and Bargh, 2000).
- Self-disclosure varies depending on the online context. People disclose more on gaming sites than they do on dating websites because the latter is more likely to lead to face-to-face encounters in the future.
Who proposed the reduced cue theory?
Spoull and Kiesler (1986)
What is the reduced cue theory?
-Suggests that self-disclosure in virtual relationships might be LESS open and honest than face-to-face ones.
What subtle cues are absent in virtual relationships?
-Facial expressions and tone of voice
What does the reduction in non-verbal communication lead to?
- Leads to de-individuation
- It diminishes peoples feelings of individual identity and brings on behaviours that people usually restrain themselves from displaying (aggression)
What is the effect of deindividuation?
- Online communications may be more aggressive which would result in less self-disclosure as they fear verbal aggression.
Evaluation of reduced cue theory
- Reduced cue theory was developed when social media lacked face-to-face interaction, meaning they were much less rich in non-verbal communication than real life interactions. However, advanced technology allows for live interaction, which is much more similar to real life interactions.
- Non-verbal communication is not absent from virtual relationships, the cues are just different, e.g. emoticons are used as substitutes for facial expression and intonation. The timing of responses is also an important form of non-verbal communication (Walther and Tidwell 1995).
What influences our attraction in real life?
In real life, our attraction to other people is greatly influenced by their appearance, mannerisms and factors such as age and ethnicity.
How does being online change interactions?
Being online removes factors that normally act as a barrier (gate) to interaction.
This creates more opportunities for shy or less attractive people to develop romantic relationships.
What is the absence of gating?
The absence of gating online also means that people can establish virtual identities they could never create face-to-face.
For example, a shy person can become more outgoing.
Strengths of gating in virtual relationships
+ There are social benefits to the absence of gating in virtual relationships. For example, the absence of gating could reduce loneliness due by making it easier for some people to access to social interactions and to seek out company. Rosenfeld and Thomas (2012) showed the importance of online communication for developing romantic relationships. Out of 4,000 participants studied, 72% of those with internet access were married or had a romantic partner, compared to only 36% of those without internet access. These findings suggest
that a virtual environment helps people to establish and maintain romantic relationships.
+ Zahoa et al. (2008) claim that the absence of gating has positive effects on people’s offline relationships. People create an online identity that is appreciated by others, and this enhances their overall self-image and increases the quality of their face-to-face relationships as well.
+ Baker and Oswald (2010) suggest that the absence of gating in virtual relationships may be particularly useful for shy people. They asked 207 male and female participants to complete a questionnaire, scoring their answers in terms of shyness, internet use and perception of quality of their friendships. They found that those people who scored highly on shyness and internet use, perceived the quality of their friendships as high; this correlation was absent for people with low shyness scores. The findings imply that as online communication helps people to overcome their shyness, so the quality of their face-to-face communication also improves.
Weaknesses if gating in virtual relationships
- People are involved in both online and offline relationships every day; it’s not an either/or situation. This means that there are fewer differences between virtual relationships and face to face relationships than research seems to suggest, and research examining virtual relationships often fails to take into account the effect of these relationships on a person’s offline interactions, and vice versa.
- Most of the research examining gating was conducted in the late 1990s and early 2000s. As technology is changing rapidly, so is the nature of online relationships; therefore, psychological research in this area risks becoming outdated by the time it is published. This lowers the temporal validity of research into virtual relationships.
What are parasocial relationships?
Parasocial relationships refer to one-sided relationships with a celebrity, a prominent person in the community, or a fictional character, when a fan knows everything about the subject of their adoration and feels very close to them, but there is no chance of reciprocity.
What are the levels of parasocial relationships?
Giles and Maltby (2006) identified three levels of parasocial relationships, using the celebrity attitude scale in a large scale survey.
1) Entertainment-social
2) Intense-Personal
3) Borderline Pathological
What is the Entertainment-Social level of parasocial relationships?
- Most people engage in parasocial relationships at some point in their lives, but most stay at this first level.
- Celebrities are seen as a source of entertainment and as a topic for light-hearted gossiping with friends.
- This is the least intense level of celebrity worship.
What is the Intense-Personal level of parasocial relationships?
- This is a deeper level of parasocial relationships.
- At this level a person has a more intense relationship with a celebrity.
- For example, they may see them as a soulmate and they have an intense interest in the celebrity’s personal life, such as their dress sense, food
they like and entertainment in which they take part.
What is the Borderline pathological level of parasocial relationships?
- This is the most intense level of parasocial relationships.
-At this level, a person takes celebrity worship to an
extreme, has obsessive fantasies about the celebrity, spends large sums of money to obtain memorabilia and may engage in illegal activities such as stalking. -At this level, it is also usual for people to believe that if only they were given a chance to meet their favourite celebrity in person, their feelings would be reciprocated.
Strengths of levels of parasocial relationships
+ Schiappa et al. (2007) found a significant positive correlation between the amount of television participants watched, the degree to which they perceived a TV character as ‘real’ and the level of their parasocial relationship.
+ There is research support for the claim that attractiveness increases the likelihood of a parasocial relationship; the attractiveness of a celebrity influenced the development of the three levels of parasocial relationships from members of the public.
Weaknesses of levels of parasocial relationships
- Educational levels of individuals needs to be taken into account. Highly educated individuals may perceive the majority of celebrities as less educated than themselves, therefore, are less likely to engage in parasocial relationships.
- It was recommend that training should occur in schools to highlight the dangers of parasocial relationships as it often results in an individual having unrealistic goals to be more similar to celebrities. For example, one may develop an eating disorder in order to obtain the slim body of a media star.
- Research into the levels of parasocial relationships was conducted via questionnaires. These can be affected by socially desirable and idealised answers, thus, lacking validity.
Who developed the absorption addiction model?
(McCutcheon et al. 2002)
What is the absorption addiction model?
- Explains why people develop parasocial relationships.
- It argues that pursuing parasocial relationships makes up for deficits in an individual’s real life relationships.
- Relationships with celebrities are seen as an attempt to cope with or escape from reality.
How do parasocial relationships help a person?
Parasocial relationships also enable individuals to develop a sense of personal identity and achieve a sense of fulfilment.
How does a parasocial relationship escalate in people with an addictive nature?
People with an addictive nature will escalate through a series of stages (absorption and addiction) until their parasocial relationship becomes a total pre-occupation with a celebrity’s life.
What are the two components of the absorption-addiction model?
- Absorption
- Addiction
Absorption as a component of the absorption-addiction model
Seeking fulfilment in celebrity worship motivates one to focus all their attention on the celebrity, to become pre-occupied in their existence and identify with them.
Addiction as a component of the absorption-addiction model
- The individual sustains their commitment to the relationship by feeling a stronger and close involvement with the celebrity.
- This leads to more extreme behaviours and delusional thinking (e.g. stalking a celebrity because there is a belief they share mutual feelings).
Strengths of the absorption addiction model
+ Research supports a link between loneliness and engaging in parasocial relationships. For example, Greenwood and Long (2009) found some evidence that people may develop parasocial relationships as a way of dealing with a recent loss or loneliness.
+ Stalkers often have a history of failed sexual relationships at the time of the stalking. Stalking in such cases is a reaction to social incompetence, isolation and loneliness.
+ Maltby et al. (2005) measured the relationship between parasocial relationships and body image in teenagers. They found that teenage girls who engaged in parasocial relationships tended to have a poor body image, especially if they particularly admired a celebrity’s physical appearance.
Weaknesses of the absorption-addiction model
- Most research into parasocial relationships is correlational. This means that cause and effect cannot be clearly established, lowering the scientific explanatory power. For example, while a significant correlation was found between poor body image and intensive parasocial relationships in teenage girls, this does not mean that intense parasocial relationships causes poor body image. It may as well be that girls who already have a poor body image tend to engage in a more intensive level of parasocial relationships to enhance their self-esteem.
- The absorption-addiction model is better suited to describing levels of parasocial relationships than explaining how people develop these attitudes. This model attempts to establish universal principles of behaviour and as such misses out on deep insight into the reasons for behaviour. Looking into particular instances of parasocial relationships, may be better suited to uncovering the reasons for why people develop them.
How can parasocial relationships link with attachment theory?
Parasocial relationships can be linked to attachment problems in childhood.
What characteristics of parasocial relationships are linked to attachments?
protest at loss of attachment figure is similar to separation protest seen in infants
Why do people with childhood attachment problems form parasocial relationships?
People with childhood attachment problems form parasocial relationships to meet their need for attachment/affection.
How does Bowlby’s monotropic theory and maternal deprivation theory explain parasocial relationships?
- Bowlby noted that failure to form a monotropic attachment before the critical period of two years of age, or developing a poor attachment, had several long term impacts.
- People can become affectionless psychopaths, develop a poor internal working model, become delinquents etc.
- Bowlby’s theories predict that individuals who didn’t form a strong bond with a primary caregiver in early childhood will try to find an attachment substitute as adults, and engaging in parasocial relationships allows them to do this.
How does Ainsworths types of attachments link to parasocial relationships?
- According to the description of the types of attachment described by Ainsworth, individuals who formed insecure-resistant relationships with their primary caregiver in early childhood will be more likely to form parasocial relationships, as they are too afraid of the criticism and rejection that are a part of real life relationships.
- As was demonstrated by Ainsworth’s findings in the strange situation study, insecure-resistant children are very clingy to their mothers and show less explorative behaviour than children of other attachment types, as they do not feel safe enough to leave their parent.
- They also show great distress when their mothers leave the room.
How does the insecure- resistant attachment style translate into adulthood?
- According to Hazan and Shaver (1987), this behaviour translates into clingy and jealous behaviour in adulthood, making it difficult for people to develop committed and lasting romantic relationships.
- Intensive parasocial relationships allows people with an insecure-resistant attachment style to engage in a fantasy about the perfect relationships, without the risk of rejection.
Strengths of the link between attachment theory and parasocial relationships
+ Cole and Leets (1999) found that individuals with an insecure-resistant attachment style were more likely to engage in parasocial relationships with their favourite TV personality, and insecure-avoidant individuals were the least likely to engage in parasocial relationships. This suggests there is a relationship between early attachment in childhood and adult parasocial relationships.
+ Research has found that 63% of stalkers experienced loss of a primary caregiver in childhood usually from parental separation. 50% reported childhood emotional, physical or sexual abuse from their primary caregivers. This supports the idea that disturbed attachment in childhood is related to extreme forms of parasocial relationships as an adult.
+ A study found that adults with insecure attachment types had positive attitudes to obsessive behaviours and stalking. Pathological attachment types tend to stalk which implies stalking is related to childhood attachment.
Weaknesses of the link between attachment theory and parasocial relationships
- Research studies into the link between infant attachment type and parasocial relationships rely on participants’ memories about their early lives in order to assess their infant attachment style. Such recollections are likely to be flawed because our memories of the past are not always accurate, meaning the studies are not valid.
- Parasocial relationships can be positive and not just about fulfilling attachment needs. For example, they allow a safe exploration of emotions.
