Approaches Flashcards
(149 cards)
1
Q
Wilhelm Wundt
A
- Known as the father of psychology
- Opened the first experimental psychological lab in Leipzig Germany
- Devised ‘Introspection’ as a way of studying internal mental events
2
Q
Introspection
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The first systematic and experimental attempt to study the mind/mental processes by breaking down conscious awareness into basic structures of reflections, thoughts, images and sensations.
3
Q
What psychological processes did Wundt want to focus on?
A
Perception and structuralism
4
Q
Structuralism
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- Theory of consciousness
- Involves use of introspection, self-reports of sensations, views, feelings
5
Q
Process of introspection
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- Involved person saying everything that is going through their mind whilst they are doing an activity.
- Must keep talking even if their ideas are not clear
- Research was highly reliable and able to replicate
- He later recognised that mental processes were difficult to study using introspection and should instead by studied using alternative methods such as brain scanning.
6
Q
How was the emergence of psychology as a science questioned?
A
- Behaviourist John Watson questioned value of introspection
- Argued that introspection produced subjective data
- Made it difficult to establish general principles
- Said scientific psychology should only study phenomena that can be observed and measured.
- Created the behaviourist approach
7
Q
Timeline of psychology emerging as its own subject
17th century to 1950s
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17th-19th Century- As a branch of experimental philosphy
1879- Wilheim Wundt opens first experimental lab in Germany
1900s- Sigmund Feud introduced the psychodynamic approach and psychoanalysis
1913- Watson writes psychology as the behaviourist views
1950s- Carl Rogers and Maslow develop Humanistic approach
8
Q
Timeline of psychology emerging as its own subject
1960s- Eve of 21st century
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1960s- Cognitive approach was introduced, Bandaranaike proposed the social learning theory
1980s- Biological approach became the dominant scientific perspective
21st century eve- cognitive neuroscience emerges
9
Q
Strengths of introspection and the emergence of psychology as a science
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- It has helped to develop other approaches in psychology (e.g. Behaviourism with Watson and cognitive with Beck)
- It has the advantage of being highly scientific. High control in lab setting.
- It is able to establish what causes behaviour. Helps predict future behaviour.
- It is still used today in areas of therapy that study emotional states.(e.g. cognitive therapy)
- Wundt supports and advocates the idea of reductionism. Believe that consciousness could be broken down to basic elements without sacrificing any of the properties of the whole. Study of mental processes deconstructed into measurable units such as perception, senses and experiences.
10
Q
Weaknesses of introspection and the emergence of psychology as a science
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- Watson criticised Wundt’s idea of introspection and whether psychology was an emerging science. It produces subjective data which varies from individuals and is not objective or reliable.
- Nit very scientific or accurate. Wilson claims that psychologists have little knowledge about some behaviour and attitudes that might exist outside of conscious awareness (racism). Introspection would not help uncover and understand these thought processes.
- It fails to explain HOW the mind works and the processes involved in thinking whilst doing an activity. Cannot see how thoughts are generated and introspection cannot be properly observed (not scientific).
11
Q
The behaviourist approach assumptions
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-Following Darwin behaviourists suggested that animal behaviour can be extrapolated to humans.
Two forms of learning: Classical conditioning and operant conditioning
12
Q
Classical conditioning- Pavlov’s research
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Before conditioning:
Food (UCS) produces the (UCR) dog salivating
bell (NS) is rung and the does not salivate (NCR)
During Conditioning:
Food (UCS) is paired with (NS) bell ringing to produce salivation (UCR).
After conditioning:
Bell (CS) will cause dog to salivate (CR)
Association has been established
13
Q
Principles of classical conditioning in relation to Pavlov’s research
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- Stimulus Generalisation
- Discrimination
- Extinction
- Timing
- Spontaneous recovery
14
Q
Stimulus generalisation as a principle of classical conditioning
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Stimuli similar to the original conditioner stimuli will cause the conditioned response.
E.g. a bell with a different pitch or sound will cause salivation
E.g. little Albert generalised white rat to fear other white objects
15
Q
Discrimination as a principle of classical conditioning
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Stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimuli will not produce the conditioned response. This can be done by withholding the unconditioned stimulus.
E.g. similar sounding bell is rung but food is not presented at the same time so salivation will not occur,
16
Q
Extinction as a principle of classical conditioning
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The conditioned response is not produced because of the bell being rung. This occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus of food.
17
Q
Timing as a principle of classical conditioning
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If the NS cannot be used to predict the UCS-
If NS is after UCS or the time interval between the two is too long, the conditioning does not take place.
18
Q
Spontaneous recovery as a principle of classical conditioning
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Following extinction, is the CS and UCS are paired together again, the link between them is made much more quickly,
-If dog forgets it can be taught again quickly
19
Q
Strengths of classical conditioning
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- Research evidence to support the idea of classical conditioning being able to explain the development of learning and phobias. Pavlov’s research on dogs and Watson with Little Albert, thus classical conditioning is successful in explaining how learning can occur in animals and young children.
- Helped apply classical conditioning to treatments of psychological disorders. Classical conditioning has helped form treatments like flooding and systematic desensitisation which are helpful in treating phobias.
20
Q
Weaknesses of classical conditioning
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- Research findings such as Little Albert and Pavlov’s study lack ecological validity due to being conducted in a lab setting.
- May not be strong in explaining how adults learn new behaviours. Limited to animals and young children.
- Menzies criticised behavioural model, found that only 2% of people who had hydrophobia had a negative experience with water. So they had not learnt their phobia. Others found that 50% of people who never had a bad experience with a dog were scared if dogs.
- Can be seen as deterministic and ignores free will. It anticipates that an individual will respond to a conditioned stimulus with no variation , which is not accurate . People are not passive states and do have control of their responses therefore explanations are incomplete and inconsistent.
21
Q
Operant conditioning with Skinner
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- Form of learning where behaviour is shaped by consequences
- Active process whereby humans and animals operate on their environment.
- Two types of consequences: reinforcement and punishment
22
Q
Reinforcement in operant conditioning
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A consequence that makes a behaviour more likely to happen
Positive and negative
23
Q
Positive reinforcement
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- Reward when a certain behaviour is performed
- primary reinforcement= meets natural needs such as food to take away hunger or water to take away thirst
- Secondary reinforcement= meeting all needs such as money or stickers
24
Q
Negative reinforcement
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Occurs when we avoid something unpleasant. Handing in essay to not get told off or rat pressing lever to avoid electric shock.
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Positive and negative punishment
Positive punishment- adding something unpleasant as a consequence( child being slapped)
Negative punishment- taking something away
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Punishment in operant conditioning
A consequence that makes a behaviour less likely to occur
| An undesirable consequence
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Skinners experiments
- Research in pigeons and rats in a ‘Skinner box’
- Rat would be placed in box and if the rat accidentally pressed the lever it would receive a food pellet (positive reinforcement)
- Rat would then learn pressing lever leads to food
- Pressing lever might also stop electric shock (negative reinforcement)
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Other principles of operant conditioning
Extinction and spontaneous recovery
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Extinction as a principle of operant conditioning
When the rat presses the lever but no longer receives a reward, the rat learns that pressing the lever leads to no rewards, the rat will then stopping pressing the lever
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Spontaneous recovery as a principle of operant conditioning
Following extinction, if the rat presses the lever and does then suddenly receive a food pellet, the rat will very quickly learn that pressing the lever results in a food pellet. The rat will link this quickly and relearn it.
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Schedules of reinforcement
Means that there are different methods of reinforcement that might occur:
- Continuous reinforcement
- Fixed Interval
- Fixed Ratio
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Continuous reinforcement
Every time the rat presses the lever they will always receive a food pellet.
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Fixed Interval
The rat presses the lever and only revives a food pellet during a fixed time only, e.g. every 30 seconds
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Fixed Ratio
The rat must press the lever for a fixed number of times and then it will receive the food pellet .
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Strengths of operant conditioning
- Research evidence to support operant conditioning. Token economy used in institutions like prisons and hospitals to reward good behaviour for privileges
- Research conducted by Skinner using Skinner box. It was conducted in highly controlled conditions to identify the cause and effect relationship.
- Research of Skinner is on the nurture side of the nature/nurture debate. Learning is due to environmental factors and external stimuli.
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Weaknesses of operant conditioning
- The Skinner box ignores free will, it is deterministic, human/animals have no control over their behaviour. Past experiences with operant conditioning will affect future behaviour.
- Skinner box research has large ethical issues. Rats and pigeons placed in stressful conditions in box may have been harmed physically or psychologically. Findings may be difficult to generalise between animals and humans. Animals and humans are very different.
- Operant conditioning follows the behaviourist approach and ignores biological approach. Operant conditioning cannot explain all behaviours for example do people learn how to aggressive or is it genes and hormones.
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Overall evaluation
| Strengths of the behaviourist approach
- Scientific Credibility= It was able to bring methods of natural science into psychology by focusing on measurable observable behaviour in highly controlled lab settings. By focusing on scientific processes like objectivity and replication, it was influential in the development of psychology as a scientific discipline.
- Real life application = principles of conditioning have been applied to many real life scenarios. E.g. classical conditioning helping flooding and systematic desensitisation to treat phobias and anxiety. Operant conditioning in token economies. Extremely helpful in treatments.
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Overall evaluation
| Weaknesses of the behaviourist approach
- Mechanistic view of behaviour= Animals and humans are seen as passive and machine like responders to the environment with little conscious insight into behaviour. Minimises free will, and cognitive psychology has highlighted mental events during learning. May apply less to humans than animals.
- Environmental determinism= Skinners idea if everything we do being the sum total of our reinforcement history ignores the idea of free will.
- Ethical and practical issues in animal experiments= Animals were exposed to stressful and aversive conditions which may have affected them mentally or physically.
- Criticised by the biological approach = it ignores the role of genes, hormones and evolution and neural mechanisms responsible for behaviour. Key evidence suggest behaviour is determined by genes (schizophrenia). It is very unlikely that someone could learn to be schizophrenic. So other models of psychology should be considered to see how behaviours develop
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What is social learning theory?
- New patterns of behaviour can be acquired/learnt by observing the behaviour of others
- during learning people perform behaviours observe different consequences such as punishment or reinforcement.
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Who devised the social learning theory?
- Bandura
| - 1977
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Key points about the social learning theory
- Modelling
- Imitation
- Identification
- Vicarious Reinforcement
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Modelling in the social learning theory
- Social learning theory requires a person to model or carry out behaviour, so that the observer can learn the behaviour.
- The model can be live e.g.parent
- Could be symbolic e.g. tv character
- Models provide examples of behaviour which can be learned by imitation
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Imitation in the social learning theory
- Children learn behaviours via imitation that are modelled by significant others and this process tends to be more rapid than using classical or operant conditioning.
-Key characteristics of successful imitation includes the factors of
A) The characteristics of the model (age, gender etc)
B) The observers perceived ability to perform the behaviour shown
C) The observed consequence of behaviour (positive or negative)
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Identification in the social learning theory
- This is the extent to which the observer relates to the model and feels that he/she is similar to them so that they can experience the same outcomes as the model.
- The person would aim to be like the model as much as they could.
- Children are likely to identify with a model of the same sex as themselves in order for social learning to be effective.
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Vicarious reinforcement in the social learning theory
- Children who observed a model who got rewarded for showing aggressive behaviour were more likely to imitate aggressive behaviour as compared to children who observe the model being punished for showing aggressive behaviour.
- This is vicarious reinforcement and shows that individuals do not need experience or punishments directly in order to learn new behaviours.
- They can observe the consequences of behaviour is but observing a model, and if awards are given to the model, then children are more likely to imitate the behaviour shown.
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What is mediational processes (cognition)?
- Social learning place importance on internal cognitive meet mediational processes.
- The observer must form a mental representation of the behaviour displayed by the model and the likely consequences of the behaviour in terms of expectancies.
- The observer might display the learned behaviour, provided there is an expectation that positive consequences are more likely to occur than negative consequences.
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What points do mediational processes involve?
- Attention
- Retention
- Motor reproduction
- Motivation
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Attention in Mediational processes
The observer must pay attention and notice the behaviour of the model
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Retention in mediational processes
The observer must remember the behaviour of the model
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Motor Reproduction in mediational processes
The observer must be able to perform the behaviour
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Motivation in mediational processes
The observer must be willing to provide behaviour in light of rewards
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Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment Procedure
- Children (36 male and 36 female aged 3 to 5 months) observed aggressive or non-aggressive adult models and were then tested for imitate of learning in the absence of the model.
- Half the children watch an adult role model I have aggressively towards the Bobo doll and half watch an adult role model not behave aggressively towards the Bobo doll.
- The aggressive role model displayed distinctive physically aggressive acts towards the door e.g.striking with mallet.
- Following exposure to the children of 70s aggressive acts they were made to feel frustrated. They were showed attractive toys but were told they’re not allowed to play with them.
- The children were then taken to a room which had some toys including a Bobo Bobo ( and other toys) doll the children were observed for 20 minutes.
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Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment Findings
- Children who observed aggressive model reproduce the same aggressive behaviour towards the Bobo doll, whereas the children who observe the non-aggressive model, showed no aggression to the Bobo doll.
- 33% of children who observed and heard verbal aggression repeated what they had seen and heard “POW! “.
- However 0% of children in the non-aggressive group displayed verbal aggression.
- In a follow-up study children observe the model being rewarded for that aggressive behaviour and this increase the likelihood that children would also be aggressive towards the Bobo doll (Vicarious reinforcement)
- Boys seem to be more aggressive than girls, an imitation of aggression was greatest when the model was the same gender as observer.
- Conclusion is that aggression can be learned through social learning such as meditational processes, observation, modelling, identification and vicarious reinforcement.
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Strength of social learning theory
- It has provided great understanding of how criminal behaviour is learnt. Akers find that criminal seem to engage in more criminal behaviour when they are exposed to a model that they highly identify with. If the model receives a positive outcome for committing crime then this increases the likelihood that the observe also commit crime.
- It is more effective when the model is very similar to the observer rather than dissimilar. If you observe a similar to the model it makes it easier for the observer visualise themselves in the place of the model and feel like they’re having the same experience. Fox found evidence to suggest that we an observer played a computer game that had a model that looked very similar to themselves, they are more likely to engage in the same behaviours as the model. (Exercise)
- Approach is less deterministic than the behaviourist approach – Bandura emphasise reciprocal determinism in the sense that we are not merrily influenced by external environment, but we also exert influence upon it, through the behaviours we choose to perform. This element of choice suggests that there is some free will in the way we behave – this is thus a better explanation of behaviour than the behavioural approach because it takes into account the fact that we choose our role models to copy.
- Social learning theory is good because it gives a more comprehensive view of human learning when compared to operant and classical conditioning. Social learning theory recognises the importance of both behavioural and cognitive factors (mediational processes) when examining how people learn new behaviours.
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Weaknesses of social learning theory
- It does not take into account cause-and-effect. Research has found the increased associations with peers can increase the likelihood of deliberate behaviour in young people through learning poor behaviour. However we cannot assume the delinquency is caused by social social learning theory alone. Other factors could cause delinquency such as deviant and poor attitude that the person has held before they started interacting with delinquent peer group. (Siegel and McCormick)
- Theory ignores other potential influences on behaviour. It ignores the role of biology or genetics which could cause people to behave in certain ways. For example Bandura found in his experiment the boys are more aggressive than girls, regardless of the experimental situation they were in. Boys might be more aggressive because of testosterone, and therefore social learning theory would ignore this.
- Many open doors ideas were developed through observation of young children’s behaviour in lab settings.This means there is a high likelihood of demand characteristics and low ecological validity.
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Cognitive approach
- Argues that internal mental processes can be studied scientifically.It contrasts the behaviourist approach.
- They use inferences about cognitive internal processes. This means that cognitive model might make assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed.
- Direct observation of internal cognitive processes is not possible results must be inferred from behaviour/data which might be mistaken or incorrect also behaviour is influenced by thoughts that are both conscious and unconscious.
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Ways to study internal processes
Theoretical and computer models
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Theoretical models to study internal processes
- The theoretical model information-processing approach suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in sequence of stages that include input, storage and retrieval, as in the multi store model.
- Models are often pictorial in nature, represented by boxes and arrows that indicate cause-and-effect or the stages of a particular mental process.
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Computer models to study internal processes
- The mind is compared to a computer by suggesting that there is there are similarities in the way information is processed.
- These models use the concept of a central processing unit (the brain), the concept of coding (to turn information into useable formats) and the use of stores to hold information.
- Such computer models of the mind have proved useful in the development of thinking machines or artificial intelligence
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The role of schema
- Cognitive processing can often be affected by a persons beliefs or expectations, (schema).
- Babies are born with simple motor schema for innate behaviours such as sucking and grasping however as we get older, our scheme become more detailed and sophisticated.
- Schema enable us to process lots of information quickly and this is useful as a mental shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli. However, schema may also distort our interpretations of sensory information leading to perceptual errors.
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A study of the role of schemas - Bartlett (1932)
- English participants were asked to read a Native American folk tale called, “the war of the ghosts “.
- Participants had to read the story and then After different lengths of times they had to record the story as accurately as possible.
- The results of the studies show that all English participants changed the story to fit their own schema.
- They reconstructed the story in order to recall it better.
- The details of the story became more English and contained elements of the English culture.
- The order of the story was changed to be more logical
- Changes were made when recalling the story for example canoes were changed to cars and bows and arrows were changed to guns.
- As more time pass between the reading the story of recording the details, it was found that participants seem to remember less information
- Conclusion is that people use their own schemes to help them interpret and remember information, and this is dependent upon culture to an extent.
- Schemas are important when studying internal mental processes
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Cognitive neuroscience
It is the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes.
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Ways in which psychologists have described the neurological basis of mental processes?
- Brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET scans have allows scientists to be able to systematically observe and describe neurological basis of mental processes and even mental disorders.
- Computer generated models that are designed to read the brain have also led to the development of mind mapping techniques known as brain fingerprinting.
- One possible future application of this could be to analyse the brainwave patterns of eyewitnesses to determine whether they are lying in court.
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A study to support cognitive neuroscience- Scans of taxi drivers brains (Maguire 2000)
Aim
- Maguire wanted to investigate if brain anatomy was pre determined, or whether the brain was susceptible to plastic changes in response to the environment.
- The aim of the experiment was to investigate the structural changes in brains of taxi drivers after undergoing extensive ‘The Knowledge’ training.
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A study to support cognitive neuroscience- Scans of taxi drivers brains (Maguire 2000)
Procedure
- 32 healthy males were split into two groups and investigated
- One group were male London taxi drivers ( for at least 18 months)
- Other group were a control group who had never driven taxis
- MRI scans were taken and analysed
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A study to support cognitive neuroscience- Scans of taxi drivers brains (Maguire 2000)
Findings
- The MRI scans showed that the right posterior hippocampus in the brain of the taxi drivers’ was larger than the control group.
- This was related to the length of time the taxi driver had been on the job.
- Positive correlation between the amount of time spent as a taxi driver and the volume of the hippocampus area.
- Physical change in brain was caused by test
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A study to support cognitive neuroscience- Scans of taxi drivers brains (Maguire 2000)
Conclusion
- Study shows importance of MRI scans and his without scans we would not know that certain parts if brain are responsible for navigation
- Can help brain damaged patients to identify problem areas.
- Shows importance of cognitive neuroscience.
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Strengths of the cognitive approach
- Scientific and objective methods including lab experiments to produce reliable, objective data. Also has biology and psychology together to establish credible scientific basis.
- Real life application with contributions to AI and thinking machines.
- Less determinist than other approaches as it is founded on soft determinism since it recognises the contribution of free will before responding to a stimulus. (Interactionist position compared to behaviourist and biological approach)
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Weaknesses of the cognitive approach
- Machine reductionism as it ignores the influence of motivation and emotion on the cognitive system for example research has found that human memory may be affected by emotional factors such as the influence of anxiety on eyewitness.
- Lack of application to every day life as it suffers to some extent from being too theoretical and abstract in nature because cognitive psychologists are only able to infer mental processes from the observed behaviour. Lots of the studies are also conducted under lab conditions and lack external validity.
- The idea of inference is made about internal mental processes is not objective enough and does not give the full picture about what is really going on inside the working mind.Psychologist and scientist still need to make inferences about cognitive processing which might be based on limited information available from research.
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The Biological Approach
It suggests that everything psychological begins on a biological basis so to fully understand human behaviour, we must look to biological structures and processes within the body such as genes. neurochemistry and the nervous system.
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Key assumptions of the Biological approach
-Behaviour has evolved through evolutionary adaptation.
-The genes an individual possesses influence their behaviour.
-The biological examination of animals can provide useful information about
human behaviour.
-Biological structures and neurochemistry control and influence our reactions
to the environment.
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Natural selection
-According to Charles Darwin, our behaviour has adapted and changed over time
through natural selection.
-This is where profitable behaviours are selected in mates and therefore reproduced.
-Over time, advantageous behaviours will
continue which will continually increase our ability to survive.
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Heredity
-Heredity refers to the idea that characteristics are 'passed on' from one generation to the next through our genetics.
-These characteristics can be physical (e.g. height and hair colour) or psychological (e.g. intelligence and
predisposition to mental illness).
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How is the extent to which genes influence behaviour examined?
-Twin Studies are done.
-These studies
often involve comparing the likelihood of a behaviour/disorder occurring in
identical twins (who are 100% genetically similar) to the likelihood of the
behaviour/disorder occurring among non-identical twins
(who are 50% genetically similar).
-If the MZ twins show a higher concordance
rate (shared behaviour) then there is argued to be a genetic component.
-It is very rare, however, that the concordance rate for MZ twins is 100%.
-This suggests that, although there may be a genetic influence, some behaviours could be a mix of both genetics and environment:
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Genotype
refers to the genes an individual possesses i.e. an individual’s
genetic make-up.
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Phenotype
refers to the observable traits/characteristics shown by an
| individual that are due to the combined effect of genes and environment.
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The Central Nervous System
This comprises of the brain and spinal cord
which act as the centre from which the individual is controlled e.g. through
the cognitive processing of the brain.
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The Peripheral Nervous System
-This comprises of the somatic nervous
system and autonomic nervous system.
-The somatic nervous system comprises the muscles attached to the skeleton and is therefore pivotal for
movement.
- The autonomic nervous system oversees bodily organs and is involved in the fight or flight response.
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Frontal Lobe
The frontal lobe is involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language.
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Parietal Lobe
It is involved in processing information from the body’s senses.
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Temporal Lobe
It is associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language.
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Occipital Lobe
It is responsible for interpreting incoming visual information
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The endocrine system
The endocrine system maintains levels of hormones in the blood that are released by glands.
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Neurotransmitters
- Neurons (cells in the nervous system) communicate with each other by releasing chemicals called neurotransmitters.
- Biological psychologists argue that neurotransmitterlevels can affect the behaviour of an individual (e.g. low serotoninlevels have been linked to depression).
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Hormones
- Hormones are released as part of the endocrine systemthrough glands.
- Biological psychologists argue that hormone levels in the systemcan affect the behaviour of an individual (e.g. high testosteronelevels have been linked to aggressive behaviour).
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Strengths of the Biological approach
- The biological approach uses the scientific method, particularly the use of the experimental method, as its main source of investigation. Experimental studies take place in highly controlled environments so that other researchers are able to replicate research studies under the same experimental conditions, thus adding to the reliability of the research.
- The biological approach has practical applications. For example, knowledge about the neurochemical imbalance in depression(low serotonin)has led to the development of drug treatments(SSRIs), which correct this imbalance.
- If people know they have a genetic predisposition for a mental disorder, such as schizophrenia, this gives them an opportunity to avoid environmental situations likely to trigger this predisposition or to develop coping skills that would protect them from its potential influence.
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Weaknesses of the Biological Approach
- The biological approach is biologically reductionist. Reductionism is the belief that complex human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into its smallest component parts, such as the action of genes, neurotransmitters and hormones. Critics argue that we cannot fully understand behaviour without taking account of all the different factors which influence it. These include cognitive, emotional and cultural factors, all of which have a significant influence on behaviour.
- Recent studies suggesting a genetic basis for criminal behaviour has led to concerns about how this information could be used. It could lead to genetic screening of populations to identify genetic susceptibilities and subsequent discrimination against those with a genetic predisposition to crime.
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Key Assumptions of the Psychodynamic Approach
- The driving force behind our behaviour is the unconscious mind.
- Instincts and drives motivate our behaviour.
- Early childhood is pivotal in making us the person we are.
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What three levels of the mind did Freud believe in?
- Conscious mind
- Preconscious mind
- Unconscious mind
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Conscious mind
Contains the thoughts, feelings and memories that a person is currently aware of.
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Preconscious mind
Contains the thoughts, feelings and memories that a person could access if they wanted to.
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Unconscious mind
-The largest inaccessible part of the mind
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Freudian Slips
-Freud believed that most of our everyday actions and behaviours are not controlled consciously but are the product of the unconscious mind, which reveals itself in slips of the tongue (Freudian slips), in creativity and in neurotic symptoms.
-The mind actively prevents traumatic thoughts, feelings and
memories in the mind from reaching the conscious mind because they would
cause the person anxiety if they did.
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When is the Id formed?
The Id is formed between birth and 18 months of age.
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How can you access the unconscious mind?
- During psychoanalysis, the therapist
(known as the psychoanalyst) tries to access the unconscious mind of their
patients using free association and dream interpretation.
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What is the structure of Personality?
-Personality has a tripartite structure (e.g. it made up of three part), the Id,
the Ego and the Superego.
-Experience and conflicts in childhood shape the
development of the three parts of personality, affecting how a person behaves.
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What is the Id?
-It is in the unconscious mind.
-The id focuses on the self (selfish), and is irrational and emotional.
-It deals with feelings and needs, and seeks pleasure.
-It operates on
the pleasure principle.
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When is the Ego formed?
The ego is formed from around 18 months until 3 years of age.
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What is the Ego?
- It is in the conscious mind.
-It is rational and obtains a balance between the id and
the superego.
-It operates on the reality principle.
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When is the Superego formed?
The superego is formed between 3 and 6 years of age.
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What is the Superego?
- It is in the unconscious mind.
- The superego acts as a conscience or moral guide based on parental and societal values.
- It operates on the morality principle.
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What is the pleasure principle, the reality principle and the morality principle?
- I want
- Do you really want?
- You can't have because it is wrong.\
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Defence Mechanisms
-Defence mechanisms stop an individual from becoming consciously aware of any
unpleasant thoughts, feelings, or memories that they may be experiencing.
-Include repression, denial and displacement.
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Repression
- Repression is the unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts.
- However, these repressed thoughts continue to influence behaviour.
- For example, a person who is abused as a child may not remember the abuse but could still have trouble forming adult relationships.
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Denial
– Denial is the refusal to accept reality to avoid having to deal with any painful feelings that may be associated with a traumatic situation.
-For example,
an alcoholic may deny that they have a drinking problem.
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Displacement
-Displacement occurs when the focus of a strong emotion (e.g.
anger) is expressed on an alternative person or object.
-For example, a student
who has been given a detention by their teacher might kick their locker.
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What were the psychosexual stages?
-Freud believed that personality developed through a sequence of five stages.
-These are referred to as psychosexual stages to emphasise that the most
important driving force in development is the need to express sexual energy
(libido).
- At each stage this energy is expressed in different ways and through
different parts of the body.
-Stages were the Oral. Anal, Phallic, Latent and Genital.
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What affected the psychosexual stages?
-Freud believed that parents played an important role in a child’s progression
through the psychosexual stages.
-If the child as allowed to experience too much or too little gratification at any of the stages, a process called fixation could
occur in which the child’s later adult personality could show permanent signs
reflecting the stage at which fixation occurred.
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Description of Oral stage?
-(0-2 years)
- Focus of pleasure is the mouth
and the control of sucking, tasting and biting.
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Consequence of resolution of the oral stage?
Trusting and able to
give/receive
affection.
113
Consequence of unresolved oral stage?
Oral fixation – smoking,
| biting nails, sarcastic and critical.
114
Description of Anal stage?
-(2-3 years)
-Focus of pleasure is the anus.
-The child gains pleasure from
withholding and expelling
faeces.
115
Consequence of resolution of Anal stage?
Can deal with
| authority figures.
116
Consequence of unresolved anal stage?
Anal retentive personality –
perfectionist and obsessive.
Anal expulsive personality –
thoughtless and messy.
117
Description of Phallic stage?
-(3-6 years)
-Focus of pleasure is the genital
area. Child experiences the
Oedipus or Electra complex
118
Consequence of resolved Phallic stage?
Adopts the
behaviours/traits
of the same sex.
119
Consequence of unresolved Phallic stage?
Narcissistic, reckless and
| possibly homosexual.
120
Description of Latent stage?
-(6-12 years)
- Focus is on the mastery of the world and social relationships. Earlier conflicts are
repressed.
- Girls become more feminine and boys become more masculine.
121
Description of Genital stage?
-(12+ years)
- Sexual desires become
conscious alongside the onset of
puberty
122
Consequence of resolution of Genital stage?
Individual is a well adjusted adult.
123
Consequence of unresolved Genital stage?
Difficulty forming
| heterosexual relationships.
124
What is the Oedipus complex?
-During the phallic stage, boys develop incestuous feelings
towards their mother and a hatred for their rival in love – their father.
-Fearing
that their father will castrate them (castration anxiety), boys repress their
feelings for their mother and identify with their father.
-In doing so, they
internalise his gender role and moral values (his superego).
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What is the Electra complex?
-During the phallic stage, girls experience penis envy and so
desire their father.
-They also believe they have been castrated and blame their
mother for this.
-Over time, girls give up their desire for their father and replace this with a desire for a baby.
-In turn, they identify with their mother
and internalise her gender role and moral values (her superego).
126
Strengths of the psychodynamic approach
- Psychodynamic concepts such as defence mechanisms do have intuitive appeal;
most people appreciate the ideas of denial, repression and displacement.
- The psychodynamic approach led to the development of psychoanalysis – a
therapy for the treatment of anxiety disorders. This laid the foundation for
psychotherapy in modern psychiatry.
- The case study of Little Hans supports the Oedipus complex proposed by
Sigmund Freud. However, the concept could only be inferred from behaviour or
reported thoughts/experiences (e.g. through dream analysis) where subjective
interpretation is open to investigator bias.
127
Weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach
- The key concepts of the psychodynamic approach such as the unconscious mind
and defence mechanisms lack falsifiability because they are unconscious
processes and therefore difficult to test.
- Concepts of the psychodynamic approach are based on small samples due to
the reliance of the case study method. This poses problems of generalisability.
- Sexist nature Oedipus and Electra complex. He suggests that girls do not feel the same feeling of guilt as boys suggesting that boys may be more morally superior to girls.
- Based on psychic Determinism, (no such as an accident in human behaviour). There is no free will and everything is determined by our unconscious mind that we cannot see or change.
128
Humanistic approach key assumptions
-Psychology should study the whole person given that everyone is unique.
-People have free will to make their own decisions in life.
-The scientific method is too objective because the methods employed fail to
acknowledge the subjective experience of the individual.
129
How is the humanistic approach supporting of free will?
- It says that humans are self determining and have free will.
- This does not mean that we are not affected by external or internal influences but instead we are active agents who have the ability to determine our own development.
130
What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
- Maslow argued that human needs exist in a hierarchy, with basic needs at the bottom and higher order needs at the top.
- Bottom to top is physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem and self actualization.
131
Physiological needs
- Those required for human survival, including food, water and sleep.
- These needs are fundamental and if they are not met then it is unlikely that anything above this in the hierarchy will be pursued.
132
Safety needs
- This includes physical safety from environmental disasters but also psychological safety.
133
Love/Belonging needs
-This refers to the form of acceptance from family, friends or partners
134
Esteem needs
-This is the need to feel good about oneself and to establish a sense of competence and achievement at work school or even as a person.
135
Self Actualization
-occurs when a person reaches their full potential and is the
best version of themselves.
- Maslow found that most of those who attained self-actualisation shared certain
characteristics.
-They tended to be creative, accepting of other people and had
an accurate perception of the world around them.
136
Why did Maslow argue that very few people have achieved self actualization?
Because few people have the ability to 'think outside the box'
137
The self
This is your concept of you and how you perceive yourself and is based on how much self-worth you think you have.
138
Congruence
This is the match between the perceived or actual self and ideal self.
139
Conditions of worth
When others impose conditions on individuals in what to do or how to behave in order to love and accept them.
140
How does Rogers argue personal growth can be achieved?
- An individuals concept of self must be in congruence with their ideal self.
- If the gap is too big, then the person will experience a state of incongruence.
- In this case self actualization will not be possible due to the negative feelings of self-worth that will arise form incongruence.
141
How can you reduce the gap between the self and the ideal self?
Rogers developed the 'client-centred therapy' to help people cope with the problems of everyday living.
142
How can an adult's psychological problems be explained according to Roger?
- He said a lack of unconditional positive regard from our parents could explain feelings of worthlessness and low self-esteem.
- A parent who sets conditions of worth on their child is storing up psychological problems for that child later.
143
Client-centred therapy
-It is strongly non-directive and is based on Roger's view that each person is the best expert on themselves and should be helped to find their own solution,
144
Key aspects of client-centred therapy from psychologist
- The counsellor accepts the clients feelings and offers them unconditional positive regard.
- This acceptance means that the client is able to clarify and accept their own feelings, so that feelings of harmony and acceptance can replace inner conflict.
145
What are the three core conditions that are essential for a therapist client relationship?
- Empathetic understanding
- Unconditional Positive regard
- Congruent therapist
146
Empathetic understanding
The therapist should aim to understand the reality of experience for the client and enter into their world., with the aim of seeing it as if it was their own.
147
Unconditional Positive regard
Acceptance and prizing of the client by the therapist for who they are without conditions of worth
148
Congruent therapist
Therapist who is in touch with their own feelings.
149
Strengths of the Humanistic approach
- It is not a reductionist approach – humanistic psychologists do not show reductionism but they practice holism – the idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person. This approach may have more validity than for example the psychodynamic or behaviourist by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real life context.
- The humanistic approach allows for personal development and change throughout the lifespan and acknowledges that we can change as a consequence of our environment – this is the complete opposite to the psychodynamic approach with states that childhood experiences lead to our destiny.(more free will)
- Research support for conditions of worth – research with adolescents has shown evidence consistent with Rogers’ view, i.e. those who experience conditional as opposed to unconditional positive regard are likely to display behaviour that meets others expectations even if they clash with their own values. Harter et al (1996) discovered that teenagers who feel that they have to fulfil certain conditions in order to gain parents approval frequently end up not liking themselves thus imposing low conditions of worth on themselves and consequently and lower self-esteem
150
Weaknesses of the Humanistic approach
- - Humanists propose concepts such as self-actualisation where definitions lack
operationalisation. There is no objective measure of whether someone has selfactualised leading to a lack of empirical evidence to support its claims.
- Many of the ideas that are central to humanistic psychology, such as personal
growth, would be much more readily associated with individualist cultures in the
Western world. Collectivist cultures
which emphasise the needs of the community may not identify so easily with the
ideals and values of humanistic psychology. Therefore, it is possible that this
approach is the product of the cultural context within which it was developed. (lacks population validity)
- Some critics argue that the humanistic approach presents an overly idealised
and unrealistic view of human nature. People are not as inherently good or
growth orientated as this approach suggests, in fact this approach ignores
peoples’ capacity for pessimism and self-destruction
151
Behavourist approach
- Watson and Skinner
- Experimental method in controlled labs
- Recent tech such as fMRI and EEG scanning used to investigate live activity in the brain.
