Relational influence

Question 1

conflict

Answer 1

perception that two parties, individuals or groups, have incompatible ideas, goals and behaviours or when individuals needs are not met

Question 2

mirror image perceptions

Answer 2

occurs when people are in conflict

• each party tends to develop distorted and reciprocal perceptions of each other
• parties are likely to describe them in terms such as untrustworthy, incompetent or evil
• we are a model of competence, integrity, virtue and high moral values
• biased perceptions can lead to escalation in hostility when biased attributions are made for behaviour

Question 3

imposed solution

Answer 3

dictated solution where at least one party will win
- sometimes one party will be stronger and will impose a solution
- there are times where a stronger third party will impose a solution
- usually leads to one party winning and the other dissatisfied and underlying conflicts remaining unresolved
- quickest way to resolve conflict
limitations
- either one or neither party gets what they want
- parties don’t have control over decision making when there is a stronger third party
- parties don’t develop skills in resolving conflict that can be used in the future

Question 4

distributive solution

Answer 4

involves compromise and mutual concessions

• you don’t take the needs of others into consideration when making a deal
• your focus is losing less and getting the better deal than the other party

Question 5

integrative solution

Answer 5

often called win win solution where both parties can benefit from decision reached

• finding integrative solution is more difficult than reaching a compromise because it requires both parties to understand each others motives, values and goals
• tries to ensure that motives of each party are addressed rather than focusing on explicit demands

Question 6

follett

Answer 6

provided classic example of difference between distributive solution and integrative solution via dispute between two sisters over an orange

• distributive solution: both sisters agreed to cut the orange in half
• however, one sister only wanted to drink the juice and the other wanted the peel for cake
• both sisters overlooked the integrative solution which was for one sister to have the juice and the other to have the peel

Question 7

techniques for resolving conflict

Answer 7

focusses on getting parties to talk to each other

• immature behaviour can lead to serious consequences
• ideal solution is direct communication between parties involved
• parties have choices to make when in conflict situations

Question 8

counselling

Answer 8

often used in conflict within families

• clients develop skills to help them deal with or directly solve conflict
• counsellors help clients solve their own problems rather than providing them with solutions
• counsellors can choose to engage with both parties together or one party at a time

Question 9

negotiation

Answer 9

involves parties who have shared and opposing interests coming together to reach agreements

• successful negotiations can lead to integrative solutions
• may break down because parties fail to understand each others position and goals

Question 10

Thompson and Hastia

Answer 10

investigated process of negotiation in a study involving participants who were assigned role of buyer or seller of a car

• found that negotiators entered into negotiating expecting the other party’s interests to be completely opposed to their own
• negotiators typically realise potential joint gain during negotiation
• number of negotiators fail to realise that they had interests that were completely similar with the other party and ended up settling for solutions that were less than ideal

Question 11

mediation

Answer 11

involves bringing in a third party to help settle conflict

- often used in divorce settlements involving child custody

Question 12

benefits of 3rd party intervention

Answer 12

• helps parties focus on issues and reach voluntary decisions
• helps parties see common ground
• improves relationship between parties

Question 13

socialisation

Answer 13

values, beliefs and behaviours acquired throughout life that are thought to be important and appropriate to function effectively as a member of society

• process that is ongoing as we grow older and have to adapt to changing roles
• agents of socialisation are factors that affect our socialisation, including parents, religious institutions and clubs

Question 14

attachment

Answer 14

formation of strong emotional ties between caregiver and his or her baby

Question 15

Harry Harlow - Rhesus monkeys experiment

Answer 15

investigated whether contact comfort or provision of food was more important in formation of mother infant attachment

• 8 rhesus monkeys which were separated from their mothers immediately after birth were involved
• a cloth surrogate mother and wire surrogate mother was used
• the 8 monkeys were divided equally into 2 groups
• first group of monkeys had a bottle attached to the cloth surrogate and the second group of monkeys had a bottle attached to the wire surrogate
• IV: provision of food (cloth surrogate vs wire surrogate)
• DV: amount of contact time spent with each surrogate mother
• hypothesised that if an infants attachment to its mother is based on feeding, then infant monkeys should become attached to surrogate with bottle
• results showed that all monkeys spent far more time with cloth surrogate than wire surrogate regardless of which provided food
• a further test was conducted where the infants were presented with a frightening object such as mechanical spider and infants still showed preference for cloth surrogate
• implied that generalisation of animal behaviour to humans should be treated catiously

Question 16

imprinting

Answer 16

learning that is precise and permanent that occurs very early on in an infants life to form bond, usually with mother
- in Bowlby’s theory, child has biological need to form attachment with primary caregiver to ensure survival and mothers have biological need to be close to child

Question 17

monotropy

Answer 17

attachment as close bond with just one attachment figure

• failure to initiate maternal attachment can lead to serious negative consequences
• child behave in ways that elicit contact and signals their caregiver when heightened arousal
• caregiver responds to child’s signals, creating reciprocal pattern of interaction

Question 18

critical period

Answer 18

• mothering is ineffective after 12 months

- if attachment is broken or disrupted during critical period, child will suffer irreversible, long-term consequences

Question 19

maternal deprivation refers to

Answer 19

• separation from mother
• loss of mother
• failure to develop attachment with mother

Question 20

long-term maternal deprivation includes

Answer 20

• reduced intelligence
• increased aggression
• depression

Question 21

cognitive framework/internal working model

Answer 21

comprises of mental representations for understanding the world, self and others

• peoples interactions with others are guided by memories and expectations from their internal model that influence and help evaluate their contact with others
• primary caregiver acts as prototype for future relationships

Question 22

features of internal working model

Answer 22

• model of others as trustworthy
• model of self as valuable
• model of self as effective when interacting with others

Question 23

Mary Ainsworth

Answer 23

• believed that the intensity of a behavior to maintain closeness with parents can be heightened or reduced by changing environmental conditions
• attachment behavior is important for survival and is expected to be found in all cultures

Question 24

strange situations

Answer 24

• aims to measure attachment of infant to caregiver
• mother and infant is introduced to a room with toys
• mother sits in the room and infant explores the room and plays
• stranger enters the room. at first she is silent, but she later speaks to the mother and approaches the child
• first separation: mother leaves the room unobtrusively. stranger is left with the infant and gears her behavior to that of the infant
• first reunion: mother re enters the room, greets and comforts her child and tries to re engage infant to play while stranger leaves the room
• second separation: mother leaves the room saying bye bye, leaving the infant alone. stranger enters the room and gears her behavior to that of the infant
• second reunion: mother re enters the room, greets and picks up the infant while the stranger leaves quietly
• led Ainsworth to develop 3 types of attachment
• type of attachment formed between mother and child depends on how sensitive and responsive mother is to child’s signals

Question 25

type A

Answer 25

anxious avoidant attachment
infant
- shows insecurities by ignoring mother, trying not to look at mother or failing to look at mother
- doesn’t explore much or show much emotion when mother leaves
mother
- more insensitive and unresponsive towards child
- often don’t have close body contact with child
- often irritable and behave in angry manner

Question 26

type B

Answer 26

secured attachment
infant
- exhibits distress when mother leaves and goes to her when she returns
- explores room freely when mother is present and less when absent
- happy when mother is around and tightly holds her when crying
mother
- more sensitive and accepting towards child
- responsive towards child’s attempts at communicating

Question 27

type C

Answer 27

anxious resistant attachment
infant
- shows insecurities by resisting mother
- doesn't explore much on own
- wary of strangers and is very distressed when mother leaves
mother
- insensitive and awkward with child
- not affectionate but not rejecting

Question 28

Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg

Answer 28

• carried out analysis of studies involving 32 samples from 8 different countries to look for similarities and differences between and among countries
• type A was most common in western countries
• type B was more common in all countries involved
• type C was more common in Japan and Israel

Question 29

Sagi & colleagues

Answer 29

suggested that early child rearing practices lead to differences in proportion of each attachment type

• IV: Israeli children raised in traditional Kibbutzim vs Israeli children raised in home based Kibbutzim
• DV: type of attachment
• results showed that children raised in traditional Kibbutzim had significantly higher anxious resistant compared to children raised in home based Kibbutzim

Question 30

strange situations criticism

Answer 30

• unfamiliar scenarios for other societies such as Japan because it is not a norm for them to leave children with babysitters
• Durkin found that Japanese children found the separation part of the experiment particularly stressful because they are rarely separated form their parents
• Lamb et al found that child was placed in artificial and strange environment and assessed only attachment of child with mother
• sample was biased as only 100 middle class American families were assessed

Question 31

parenting

Answer 31

• parent child interactions work in both ways
• big difference in how parents respond to their child depending on their temperament
• other relationships within the family may also affect parenting

Question 32

Cox and colleagues

Answer 32

found that mothers who are close and supportive with their partners are more likely to be patient and nurturing with their children

Question 33

important aspects of parenting

Answer 33

responsiveness
- level of control and affection shown by parent
control
- extent that parents supervise and regulate their child’s behavior

Question 34

authoritarian parenting style

Answer 34

• demands obedience and sets many rules with few explanations to them
• doesn’t show interest in alternative viewpoints that children may have
• demanding and strict with high expectations of compliance with parental rules and demands
• outcomes:
• children are often resentful, withdrawn and insecure
• teenagers often rebel against parental authority in negative and self destructive ways

Question 35

authoritative parenting style

Answer 35

• sets reasonable limits and ensures that children understands reasons for limits
• more responsive towards children’s viewpoints
• tries to involve children in decision making as they are growing
• expects mature, independent and age appropriate behavior from child

Question 36

permissive parenting style

Answer 36

• provides parental control for children but have few rules that they have to follow
• children’s activities are not closely monitored and rarely tries to control their behaviors
• children are allowed to express themselves as they please
• outcomes
• adolescents may develop antisocial behavior
• children may not have developed sense of right and wrong as they have not had limits put on them
• children may do whatever pleases them without regard for others

Question 37

uninvolved parenting style

Answer 37

• displayed by parents who rejected their children or are overwhelmed by the stresses in their lives that they have no time or energy left for their child
• doesn’t set limits, enforce behaviors or show interest in child
• outcome
• child tend to be selfish, immature, dependent, lacking in social skills and unpopular among peers

Question 38

Diana Baumrind

Answer 38

• followed children who has experienced different parenting styles over a number of years
• found that children of authoritative parenting were more achievement oriented and had better social skills than children of authoritarian or permissive parenting
• as adolescents, they were relatively confident and tended to stay away from drug abuse or other problematic behaviors