recap lecture Flashcards
what is behaviourism?
whose explanations about learning are based on the relationship between observable behaviours and environmental events rather than internal ones
what is associative learning?
any learning process during which new behaviours are associated with certain events and stimuli
what are the 2 different kinds of associative learning ?
classical conditioning and operant conditioning
what is classical conditioning?
a learning process in which one learns to link 2 or more stimuli in their minds and react to one of them as tho it was the other one
what is operant conditioning?
form of learning with a voluntary response - everything to do with punishments and rewards
define positive rewards
pleasant event that follows target behaviour (bar of chocolate for attending training)
what is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement ?
positive is the addition of something
negative is the removal of something
define a negative reward
unpleasant event is removed after the targeted behaviour is shown (coach stops nagging once player comes to training on time)
define positive punishment
the addition of an unpleasant event follows unwanted behaviour (pupil late, stay back and tidy up entire classroom after the practice)
define negative punishment
the removal of a pleasant event following unwanted behaviour (player cannot be selected for a team)
what is reinforcement ?
punishment or reward
what is generalisation ?
the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar response after the response has been conditioned.
(hit in the head and got concussion during football game - anxiety and worry every time he sees a football or plays a match)
what is extinction?
gradual elimination of a tendency to perform a response(i.e. targeted behaviour (teaching someone to come on time, remove rewards for coming on time, stop coming on time)
what is shaping?
the idea of rewarding a behaviour which is a successful approximation of the targeted behaviour
what are the 4 stages of shaping?
reward successful approximations of the task.
gradual development
ignore attempts furthest away from targeted behaviour
refine reinforcement to approximations closest to the targeted behaviour
what is the importance of scheduling reinforcement ?
the time and frequency, how many time and how often
what are the 2 possibilities of scheduling reinforcement ?
continuous and intermittent
the definition of continuous?
reinforcement occurs after every response
what are the pros and cons to continuous?
pros - faster results
cons - quicker extinction of tagerted behaviour
the definition of intermittent?
reinforcement after some response
what are the pros and cons of intermittent?
pros - longer term mention of targeted behaviour
cons - takes longer to condition behaviour
what are the 4 reinforcement schedules that are possible?
fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed intervals and variable intervals
what is fixed ratio ?
reinforcement occurs after x amount of times
what is an example of fixed ratio?
football tackle gets a helmet sticker after every 4th sack
characteristics of fixed ratio? (continuous frequency)
produces high rates of responding but retained for a short period ofttimes
what is variable ration?(intermittent frequency)
reinforcement occurs every X times but varies from reinforcement to reinforcemnt
what is an example of variable ratio ?
the idea of casinos , know you will win but every so often
what is fix interval (continuous timing)
reinforcement occurs after a fixed amount of time has passed
an example of fixed interval
an athlete gets a star every friday after perfect attendance to practice
what are the characteristics of fixed interval ?
desired response diminished immediately after reward b/c one know that certain amount of time has to pass
what is variable interval (intermittent timing)?
reinforcement occurs after an average of X amount of time that has passed
what is an example of variable interval ?
coach has athlete running sprints in which they sprint various amount of time
what is the characteristics of variable interval ?
low but steady rate of responding
what are the 3 views of motivation?
trait-centred, interactional view and situation-centred
what is the trait-centred view?
motivate behaviour is the primarily function of individual characteristics
what is the situation-centred view?
motivation level depends primarily by situation
what is the interactional view?
motivation behaviour depends from interaction of participant factors and situational factors
what is the attribution theory?
all explanations we give ourselves when something happens
what is the attribution process?
event, outcome, post event analysis, attribution/explanation, affective response and future expectations then motivation for subsequent participation
an example of the attribution process?
football match, win or lose (lose), players reflection on why they lost (for example, referee wasn’t fair), the same referee decided who wins and is “an unfair to us anyway sp we will lose, motivation is low and so is effort because “regardless how we play we will lose”
Weiner’s attribution theory(1972- 1985)
explained within 3 categories
stability (stable or unstable), locus of causality (internal or external) and locus of control (in or our ones control)
what does weiner’s attribution theories influence?
these explanations influence the subsequent motivation to strive for future achievements?
the self? what is the broadest concept to least broadest of the self?
self-system is the broadest concept encompassing self-concept, self-esteem, self-confidence, self-esteem and self-efficacy.
what is self-concept?
the perceptions and beliefs we have about ourselves.
Descriptive and answering “who am i?”
what is self-confidence?
the belief that an individual can successfully perform a desired behaviour.
it is characterised by a high expectancy of success.
improving self-confidence influence your self-esteem.
what is self-efficacy?
the perception or expectation of ones ability to perform a task successfully. VERY task-specific
self-concept?
a multidimensional model with 4 categories; academic, physical, social and emotional
more on self-efficacy?
the perception of ones ability can be manipulated through (false) feedback and it related to both past and future experiences and expectations
what does the self-system entail?
it is a complex self system.
self-concept, self-esteem, self-confidence, self-efficacy
what are the sources of self-efficacy?
performance accomplishment, imaginal experiences, verbal persuasion, emotional state, physiological states and vicarious experiences
examples of self-efficacy?
verbal persuasion from parents, coach/teacers, imagine yourself succeeding at the task, coach/teacher using a model with a similar ability and age as the perform to enhance and improve self-efficacy,
what is arousal?
a blend of physiological and psychological activity in a person, and it refers to the intensity of dimensions of motivation at a particular moment
what is anxiety ?
negative emotional state characterised by nervousness, worry and apprehension and associated with activation or arousal of the body
what are the components of anxiety ?
cognitive (thoughts that occur when in anxiety such as worry).
somatic (physiological symptoms a person experiences when in anxiety such as butterflies in stomach.
what are the dimensions of anxiety?
state anxiety and trait anxiety
what is state anxiety ?
situation-specific anxiety response at a given point in time that can change from moment to moment(for example, ball players level of state anxiety changes from moment to moment during a game)
what is trait anxiety?
an acquired behavioural tendency or a stable predisposition to feel anxiety across a variety of situations (personal trait) (for example, student will perceive an exam as threatening, cause panic attack)
what is the drive theory (spence and spence, 1966)?
the relationship between arousal and performance is positive linear
- as arousal increases so does performance
- is there a limit tho
what are the limitations to the drive theory?
is high arousal always ASSOCIATED WITH HGIH PERFORMANCE
what is the inverted U-Hypothesis (oxendeine)?
relationship between arousal and performance is curvilinear
- increased aeousal is postulated to improve skilled performance up to a certain point beyond which further increases arousal may impair it.
- performance is poor at low or high arousal and is best at intermediate levels
what are the limitations for inverted u-hypothesis?
does optimal performance ALWAYS occur at the midpoint for EVERY athlete and for EVERY task?.
- theory suggests that reducing arousal when too high or increasing arousal when to low will result in enhanced performance
- doesn’t explain relationship between arousal and performance for more complex tasks.
what is the difference between individualised zones of optimal functioning and inverted U?
optimal level of state anxiety does not always occur at the mid point, but varies from individual to individual
- the optimal level of state anxiety is not a single point but us bandwidth (range)
the individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOF)?
top athletes have a one of optimal state anxiety which their best performance occurs. outside this zone, poor performance occurs.
recent additions explain that both positive (calm) and negative (anger) emotions can enhance or inuit performance too.
what are there limitations to IZOF?
doesn’t explain WHY levels of anxiety may be beneficial or detrimental
- doesn’t explain whether components of state anxiety (somatic or cognitive) affect performance in the same way
what is attention?
concentration, divided attention and selective attention.
what is concentration?
deliberate investment pf mental effort into information that seems most important at that given time
what is divided attention?
processing different information sources and successfully performing several tasks at a time
- different ask being processed at the same time successfully parallel to one another
what is an example of divided attention ?
running and dribbling a ball in basketball
what is selective attention?
the process of directing our awareness to relevant stimuli while ignoring irrelevant stimuli in the environment.
what are the attentional matrix : dimensions ?
external - internal (direction)
broad - narrow (width)
what is broad attentional focus?
allows a person to perceive several occurrences simultaneously (defender scanning a field to identify who has the ball, where the opposition is…)
what is narrow attentional focus?
occurs when you respond to only one or two cues (batter prepares to bat and focusses on the ball)
what is internal attentional focus?
is directed inwards to ones thought and feelings (high jumper thinks about how to execute jump or focusses on worrisome thoughts)
what is external focus?
directs attention outwards to a features within players environment (weather conditions, a piece of equipment, another player)
types of attentional focus ?
broad external, broad internal, external narrow, internal narrow
2 key points for types of attentional focus?
different sports and types of sports require different types of attentional focus.
- it is key to learn how to shift attentional focus to perform a task at hand to optimum
what is broad external ?
information from environment and assessment ( football defender scanning the field to identify where the opposition is places, team mates, who has the ball)
what is broad internal?
analyst collected information to make a decision on how to approach a situation (developing a game plan or a strategy in both team and individual sports)
what is internal narrow?
rehearse the decision made/ an upcoming performance( use breathing exercise to relax before serving ball in tennis)
what is external narrow?
focus on single target, perform a task ( the ball)
social loafing and social facilitation
an individual in a team puts in less than 100% effort due to low motivation and how performing a well-learned or easy task under the presence of others enhances (facilities) performance but performing complex of un-learned taks in the presence of others can deliberate performance
