Reasoning / Decision Making

Question 1

What are the four broad categories of thinking and reasoning research?

Answer 1

Judgement, Decision Making, Problem Solving, and Reasoning.

Question 2

What is judgement in the context of thinking and reasoning?

Answer 2

Judgement involves calculating the likelihood of certain events.

Question 3

What is decision making in the context of thinking and reasoning?

Answer 3

Decision making involves selecting one option out of several potential choices.

Question 4

What is problem solving?

Answer 4

Problem solving involves cognitive processes that take us from recognizing a problem to developing a solution.

Question 5

What is reasoning?

Answer 5

Reasoning is determining what conclusions can be drawn from various premises assumed to be true.

Question 6

What is the key question regarding our thinking and reasoning abilities?

Answer 6

“Are we any good at it?” (Are we rational?)

Question 7

Why are we bad at estimating likelihoods?

Answer 7

Humans are not “wired” to understand percentages, fractions, or probabilities.

Question 8

How does rephrasing problems help with judgement?

Answer 8

Reframing problems in terms of frequencies rather than probabilities makes the structure easier to understand.

Question 9

What heuristics do we use in judgement according to Kahneman & Tversky?

Answer 9

Availability heuristic, Representativeness heuristic, and Anchoring and Adjustment.

Question 10

What is the availability heuristic?

Answer 10

Judging frequency or probability based on how easily examples come to mind.

Question 11

What is the representativeness heuristic?

Answer 11

Assigning a high probability to events typical of a class, often ignoring base rates.

Question 12

What is anchoring and adjustment?

Answer 12

Starting with an initial estimate and adjusting it, even if the anchor is arbitrary.

Question 13

What does utility theory suggest about decision making?

Answer 13

We should choose the option with the greatest utility (value) to us.

Question 14

What is prospect theory?

Answer 14

A theory that explains decision making, highlighting our tendency to be loss averse—giving more weight to potential losses than gains.

Question 15

What is the framing effect in decision making?

Answer 15

The way a problem is presented (emphasizing gains or losses) can influence choices, even if the options are equivalent.

Question 16

What is the somatic marker hypothesis?

Answer 16

Decision making is supplemented by unconscious “gut feelings” based on past emotional experiences.

Question 17

What are the three aspects of problem solving?

Answer 17

It is goal-directed, an immediate solution is unavailable, and it involves conscious cognitive processes.

Question 18

What are the three parts of a problem?

Answer 18

The start state (the problem), the operators (possible actions), and the goal state (the solution).

Question 19

What is functional fixedness?

Answer 19

A cognitive bias that limits a person’s ability to use objects in novel ways during problem solving.

Question 20

What is the Tower of Hanoi problem?

Answer 20

A puzzle requiring the transfer of discs to a third peg following specific rules, demonstrating problem-solving strategies.

Question 21

What is deductive reasoning?

Answer 21

Reasoning where the conclusion is certain if the premises are true.

Question 22

What is inductive reasoning?

Answer 22

Reasoning where conclusions are likely valid but require further evidence and can be regarded as hypotheses.

Question 23

What are two valid inferences in deductive reasoning?

Answer 23

Modus ponens (If p then q; p; therefore q) and modus tollens (If p then q; not q; therefore not p).

Question 24

What are two invalid inferences in deductive reasoning?

Answer 24

Affirming the consequent (If p then q; q; therefore p) and denying the antecedent (If p then q; not p; therefore not q).

Question 25

What is confirmation bias?

Answer 25

The tendency to seek information that confirms a theory rather than information that might falsify it.

Question 26

What is the Wason selection task?

Answer 26

A reasoning task that demonstrates the importance of seeking falsification rather than confirmation to test rules.

Question 27

What constraints affect our thinking and reasoning?

Answer 27

Cognitive limitations, time constraints, and lack of information.

Question 28

What do systematic biases in thinking reveal?

Answer 28

They provide clues about the cognitive mechanisms underlying our thought processes.

Question 29

Can education and training improve our thinking and reasoning?

Answer 29

Yes, but only to a limited extent. Systems should be designed to account for human weaknesses.