Reasoning

Question 1

Logic

Answer 1

Enables judgement of how good someones reasoning is

Allows identification of the properties of an argument and allows analysis

Question 2

2 Components of an Argument

Answer 2

1. Info that provides the argument: premise

2. Statement following premise: conclusion

Question 3

Conditional Reasoning

Answer 3

If (antecedent)
Then (Consequent)
Conclusion
If conclusion follows logically from premise then the proposition is logical

Question 4

Types of Inference

Answer 4

2 logically valid
1. Modus Pollens: affirms 'if'
2. Modus Tollens: denies 'then'
2 logically invalid: 
1. Denial of antecedent: denies 'if' 
2. Affirmation of consequent: affirms 'if'

Question 5

Mental Rules Theory (Rips, 1994)

Answer 5

The mind has built-in rules and logic representations in a language-like way
1. Represent underlying logical forms of argument
2. Access appropriate rules
3. Evaluate argument components
Harder to do with MT argument as you have to deconstruct the MP version first

Question 6

Mental Model Theory (Johnson & Laird, 1983)

Answer 6

Assumes: Mind has no mental rules
Model constructed to make sense of the premise
1. Comprehension of premise
2. Conclusion based on mental models
3. Search for counter-examples
Errors: occur as a failure to keep track on mental models

Question 7

Testing Reasoning of 4 Inferences (Evan, Handley & Buck, 1998)

Answer 7

Test to see how good p’s reasoning was for the 4 inferences
Modus pollens: 98% correct
Modus tollens: 60% correct
Worse logical reasoning for MT because its hard to judge when negation is involved - longer response and have to think of alternatives

Question 8

Wason Selection Task (1966)

Answer 8

Studies performance on conditional reasoning using 4 playing cards
2 show vowel or consonant
2 show odd or even digit
‘IF a card has a vowel on one side, THEN it was an even number on the other side’
Task: turn the two cards that will check if the rule is true
70% p’s chose wrong: E (logical) and 4 (not logical as does not permit denial of consequent (MT)
Logic would be E & 7

Question 9

Why are logically valid cards not chosen very often? Confirmation Bias

Answer 9

P’s tend to prefer to look for evidence that confirms beliefs/theories

Question 10

‘Drinking Age’ Version of WST (Evans & Over, 1996)

Answer 10

People are more likely to to make logical choices when the conditional proposition concerns everyday rules/events
‘IF a person is drinking beer, THEN they must be over 18’
Each card has drink on one side, age on other side
90% p’s chose correctly
Reasoning improved because of familiarity with real-world context

Question 11

Wason (1965) Effect of Negation on Reasoning

Answer 11

P’s significantly more accurate and faster at positively worded propositions
With negation, affirmation of the consequent is incorrect reasoning
With negation, you need to think of alternatives to the premises and conclusion which takes times and cognitive resources

Question 12

Problems with Reasoning

Answer 12

1. Competence: worse at reasoning without training in logic
2. Bias: we respond to non-logical features of a task
3. Content: reasoning is dependent on task content and context
4. Knowledge: prior experience affects logical reasoning

Question 13

Rationality

Answer 13

Thinking consistent with logic

HOW we reason, not what conclusions we draw

Question 14

Simon (1957) Bounded Rationality

Answer 14

We are rational beings WITH cognitive restraint, everyday reasoning gets us through day-to-day life successfully even if it violates logic

Question 15

2 Types of Rationality

Answer 15

System 1: non logical reasoning to achieve goals and meet needs
System 2: Logical according to normative standards
-both systems distinct, but can be used together

Question 16

System 1: Goal-directed rationality

Answer 16

Rapid, automatic, pre-conscious
Influenced by beliefs, past experience etc.
Not easy to explain decision just ‘felt right’

Question 17

System 2: Rule-based rationality

Answer 17

Longer system - forward thinking
Hypothetical and counterfactual
P’s aware of thought process and the outcome

Question 18

Evidence for the Dual-Systems Theory (Evans & Over, 1996)

Answer 18

Belief Bias effect: If p’s believe in the content of the problem (familiarity) the belief overrides logical ability - system 1

Question 19

Tacit Reasoning

Answer 19

Knowledge is at a tacit stage for a particular task because you know it so well - built-in. Automatic.

Question 20

Ways of Testing Dual System Theories

Answer 20

• Time pressure induces system 1 reasoning

- Provide instructions to induce system 2 reasoning

Question 21

Are we Rational?

Answer 21

Humans don’t always conform to principles of logical reasoning, but we still often draw correct conclusions and make good decisions
Rational by the standards of system 1, if not system 2