Reading Points - midterm 3 Flashcards
marshmallow test
1960s
wait 15 mins to get second
ability to delay immediate gratification for larger rewards
indicator of self control or will power = predicted later life success
followed these kids for 4 decades
-more intelligent etc higher SAT scores. by 30 higher education level, self-esteem and coped better with stress
even carried to 40 years later
scanned = differences in prefrontal cortex between adults with high and low delay as preschoolers = some bio basis
in the wake of the marshmallow test what do schools now promote
social emotional skills -self-control self-regulation ability to get along with others =SEL social emotional learning did improve social skills and also academic achievement
define emotions
neural and physiological responses to the environment, subjective feelings, cognitions related to those feelings and the desires to take action
combination of physiological and cognitive responses to thoughts or experiences
components of emotions
neural responses
physiological factors including heart rate, breating rate and hormone levels
subjective feelings
emotoinal expressions
the desire to take action, including the desire to escape, approach or change people or things in the environment
role of cognition in emotion
do we have the physiological response first then label it fear ot vice-versa?
discrete emotions theory
a theory about emotions in which emotions are viewed as innate and discrete from one another from very ealry in life and each emotoin is believed to be packaged with a specific and discrete set of bodily and facial reactions
-Darwin
emotional responses = largely automatic and not based on cognition
evidence to support discrete emotions theory
infants express a set of recogniseabel, discrete emotions well before they can be actively taught about them
similar eomtional facial expressions have been observed around the world but cultures vary in how they label
vocalizations of basic emotions (anger, joy, sadness) = recognizeable accross different cultural groups
functional perspective
a theory of emotoin arguing that the basic function of emotoins is to promote action toward achieving a goal. in this view, emotions are not discrete from one another and vary somewhat based on the social environment
individuals experience emotoins in order to manage the relationship between themselves and the environment
so emotions are partially a response to how an individual appraises the environment
makes emotions and emotional expression goal driven
appraisals tend to be at the self conscious level (but exceptions = children realised they can fake emotoin to illict response eg cry to get more sympathy when sibling hits them
example of how emotions are goal driven
child wants something to stop
cries
wants someting to keep going
laughs
what do both theories (functional perspective and discrete emotion theory) agree on
cognition and experience shape emotional development
the emergence of positive emotions
happiness - infants express a smile
1 month old = during REM sleep
after 1 month = sometimes smile when gently stroked
may be reflexive = evolved bio state to keep caregiver
some evidence newborns less than a day old smile when being touched
3-8 week = begin to smile to external stimuli
3-4months = laugh and smile - smile more at people than at puppet like balls
also show smiles when they realise they can control events
7months = smile at familiar people (unfamiliar people = distress), selective smiles = motivate parents, strengthens parent child bond as exchange of positive affect
increases over first year of life
late 1st year = laugh at discrepancies (eg dad wearing a silly hat
then language = humour develops further
box 10.1 Basic emotional expressions in infants
internal states but expressed through facial expressions and body movements
early emotion expressions seem to support bio + evo basis
coding = AFFEX (links particular facial expressions and facial movements with particular emotion)
play videos in slow motion (eg kid being vaccinated) to evaluate emotions that can last less than a second
has been used to demonstrate links between children’s emotional expressions and their emotion regulation skills and social behaviour
one study = the more 3-5 yo expressed anger and sadness in a lab task = the more they displayed mutual health and behaviour problems in their classrooms 6 months later
AFFEX - happiness
smiling, either with a closed mouth or with an open upturned mouth; raised cheeks, which in turn make the eyes squint a bit
AFFEX - anger
strongly furrowed brown that comes down in the center, almost making an X of the brow muscles; open square-shaped mouth, sometimes baring teeth; flared nostrils
AFFEX - surprise
eyes wide open; eyebrows raised into arches; mouth open in a round o shape
AFFEX - sadness
downturned corners of the outh, lips pushed together and possibly trembling, slightly furrowed brow
AFFEX - fear
eyes wide open; brows raised in the middle, making a triangle shape; corners of mouth pulled back into a grimace, with mouth wither open or closed
AFFEX - disgust
nose crinkled and nostrils flares; mouth open wide with lips pulled back and possibly with tongue sticking out
social smile
smiles that are directed at people; they first emerge as early as 6-8 weeks
liekly promote care from parents and older adults + strengthen relationships with other people
infants showing a smile when realise they can control events
string to arm of infant
1/2 = controls music, other music is random
infants who caused music = showed more interest and smiling to the music
emergence of fear in infants
4months = wary of unfamiliar events and objects
6/7 months = initial signs of fear begin to appear, strangers in particular
fear of strangers
6/7 months
reflects infants recognise that unfamiliar people do not provide comfort and pleasure tat familiar people do
fear of strangers intensifies and lasts until about 2yo
is varibale - tempermament + context of stranger
strangers experiment
4months, 8 months, 12 months and 16 months
experimenter (stranger) = slowly approach infant whilst mother sat close by
talked and picked up infant
observer rated face by AFFEX (no fear 0-4 fear), also rated distress in vocalisations
no fear at 4m, steep increase at 8m (is clearly in place).
after 8m = infants have more experience with noel situations so maintain some variation but do not become any more distressed
fear of strangers is…
adaptive
babies cnanot escape so must rely on parent to protect them
why are there individual differences in infants reactions to strangers
quality of child’s relationship with their mother + how effectievly mum deals with their childs experience of fear
separation anxiety
feelings of distress that children (esp infants and toddlers) experience when they are separated or expect to be separated from individuals whom they are emotionally attached to
-varies with context
-less distress when child can crawl away themself vs parent leaves them
-8-13/15 months = increases then decreases
-many cultures, adaptive, normal = encourages close proximity to adults who can protect and provide for them and their needs
but extreme levels = mental health
when does fear of imaginary creatures occur
preschool = cognitive abilites to represent imaginary phenomena
when are kids able to differentiate between real and imaginary fear
school age (5/6yo)
childrens anger
response to frustrating or threatening situations = interpersonal experience
rarely expressed as a single emotion (sadness too usually)
1yo = clear anger expression
functionalist perspective of anger
person is more liekly to e angry with another person than an object + more liekly to be angry in certain contexts more than others
experiment to ilicit anger in infants
anger ilicited by infant held in mums arms and attractive toy placed in table infornt of them = frustrating
AFFEX
moderate anger at 4m
steadily increases over next year
peaks 18-24m
3-6yo = less negative emotion in structured lab tasks designed to elicit it
decline in anger = ability to use language as form of expression and regulate their emotions
how causes of infants anger change over time
early preschool= when harmed by peer whether intentional or not = same respinse
school age = understand motives / intentionality and act accordingly
older = more anger at home with families but is typically low in intensity, prehaps in conjunction with developing separate identites from their parents
sadness in infants
often exhibited in same situations as anger
less frequent than anger or distress
older infants / young children = intense prolonged displays of sadness when separated from parents for extended periods + are not given sensitive care
how is fear adaptive
draws in attention and support from caregivers who can help
surprise in infants
emotional reaction to sudden, unexpected event
more than physical startle (this is displayed from birth)
involves a cognitive understanding something is not as it usually is
6 months = surprise appears
tends to be brief, usually changing into another emotion
effected by emotional environment provided by their parent
scotland surprise study
infants with mothers showing depressed symptoms = showed less surprise to jack in the box
mums = same
infants express emotoins influenced by how strongly their caregivers express emotoins
disgust in infants
evolutionary basis = avoid potential poison / disease causing bacteria
learnt based on culture (eg insect eating in some cultures)
thought to be innate and occur well before children are able to communicate with others
name the 4 self-conscious emotions
guilt, shame, embarrasment and pride
-relate to our sense of self and our consciousness + others reactions to us
when do self-conscious emotoins emerge
2/3yo
increases
guilt
empathy for others + feelings of remorse and regret about one’s own behaviour as well as desire to undo the consequences of that behaviour
shame
focus on themself, exposed, want to hide
study to show shame and huilt reactions in toddlers
2yo play with toy doll that would break while experimenter was out of the room
some = shame, avoided adult, delayed telling them about mishap
some = guilt, repaired doll, told adult shortly after they returned
individual differences in guilt observed at 22m = remained stable accross preschool years
study of north american kids, when are they more liekly to experience guilt
when they have done something wrong and their parents emphasise the badness of the behaviour rather than the child
also more likely when parents helped them understand the consequences of their actions to others and teach them to repair the harm they have done, avoid publically humiliating them and communicate respect and love for child even when disciplining them
how self conscious emotions vary accross cultures
japan = no praise on the individual, so less likely to report pride as a consequence of personal success
asian = welfare of the group more important = report guilt and shame more
in these cultures parents effortd to elicit shame from their children = direct and disparaging
this kind of explicit belittling = more positive effect on asian than western children eg you made your mother lose face, never seen a 3yo as bad as you
understanding emotions is critical in the development of….
social competence
primitive in infancy but develops rapidly over course of childhood
development of understand emotions in other
3m = can distinguish happiness, surprise and anger (habituation paradigm used) 7m = fear, sadness and interest - show different patterns of brain waves
studying of perceived emotional expression of others as meaningful
facial expression and voice = consistent emotion and face expression and voice inconsistent
-attend more to presentation that is emotionally consistent (but under 7m dont notice the difference between the 2 presentations)
study of emotion understanding of others in 12-14m vs 16-18m
12-14 did not distinguish between objects that had been associated with each emotion
but 16-18m = strongly preffered toys associated with surprise and happy faces and strongly avoided toys associated with fear or anger
social referencing
the use of a parents or other adults facial expressions of vocal cues to decide how to deal with novel, ambiguous or possibly threatening situations
12m study of social referencing
stay with mum and fear towards novel objects if she expresses positive emotions and partly towards if no emotions
-same shown with mums tone of voice
14m and social referencing
emotion-related info obtained through social referencing has an effect on child touching the object an hour later
what are the best cues for social referencing for children
when they receive both vocal and facial cues of emotoin from the adult
use of vocal = more effective than visual alone
labelling of facial expressions
3yo = rudimentary at narrow range
2yo = skilled at labelling happy
then anger and sadness develop
late preschool / early school = surprise and disgust
early / mid elementary = pride, shame and guilt
scope and accuracy improves into adolescence
how labeling of emotion is affected by the environment
growing up with violence or without adults they trust = develop heightened awareness to emotional cues of conflict
eg orphan in sierra leone = more likely to detect anger in facial expressions + less likely to detect sadness = self-preservation of living on the streets
when does ability to recognised disgust emerger
12-14 yo (1/3 recognise)
15-17 yo (3/4 recognise)
culturally french > americans > palestinians
what is emotional intelligence
the ability to cognitiely process information about emotions and to use the information to guide both thought and behaviours
what is cognitive ability
ability to reason, learn from and remember verbal or visual info
measure
ask participants to respond to direct statements about themselves and their abilities
-eg how true is the statement - can control my anger when i want to
outcomes and emotional intelligence as a child
better at managing emotions and less likely to engage in aggressive behaviours
fewer mental health problems, low risk behaviours and better strategies at coping with stress
predicts positive outcomes, self-estteem, personality, cognitive intelligence
so we have developed interventions to protmote better EI
RULER program
recognition understanding labelling expressoin regulation more emotionally supportive and respectful of others perspectives than controls
other interventions for EI
enhance by perceiving emotions in others + aware of how emotions influence thought processes
eg emotional poems and music as a springboard for discussion
participants = less verbal and physically aggressive and fewer mental health problems
children story study of understanding certain situation provoke certain emotions
children told short stories
3yo= identify happy situations
4yo = identify sad situations
5yo = anger and surprise
ages 4-10 better ar emotions from….
stories than pictures
facial expressions = often interpreted as indicating more than one emotion
recording conversations of emotions at home
28m = mention emotions, will even mention what causes the emotions
4-6yo = accurate explanations for why their peers express negative emotions in their preschool
-get more skilled over the preschool years
beliefs about being dishonest
3rd and 6th graders = more likely than kindergartens to blieve someone caught being dihonset = scared
when do infants believe an emotion can be brought on by a memory
some 3 yo
all 5 yo
also can explain why people in a situation that reminds them of a particular negative past event may change their behvaiour to avoid future negative events
this ability helps children explain their own and others emotional reactions in situations which may appear emotionally neutral
3 yo attempts at fake emotions
occasional (and very transparent) attempts to maask their negative emotions when they receive a dissapointing prize or gift
5yo understanding of fake emotion
correctly understand someone is sad (eg forgot teddy to sleepover) really feels despite the fact he is trying to pretend he is happy to not upset his friend
-younger children did not appreciate someone could express one emotion whilst feelings another
display rules
a social groups informal norms about when, where and how much one could show emotion and when and where displays of emotion should be surpressed or masked by displays of other emotions
-informal group norms
-requires stimulating a fake emotion and masking an emotion
=key for social interaction
how kids start to understand lying
with age they begin to better understand that people tend to bream eye contact and avert gaze whilst lying and increasingly able to use this info to conceal their own deception
deception study
4,6 and 8yo
3 boxes, had to pretend to dislike favourite toy in box to trick experimenter = would then win the toy
4yo = not successful, unable to stimulate joy and mask dissapointment
increase with age
improvements linked with cognitive capacities
how social factors affect display rules
cultural differences
gender differences
parents beliefs and behaviours = often refelct cultural beliefs = contribute to childs understanding and use of display rules
eg nepal = control of emotion display varies by subculture, children seem to attend to display rules that are valued in their culture or that serve an important function in the family
emotion regulation
a set of both conscious and unconscious processes used to both monitor and modulate emotional expressions and experiences
crying in infants
how to fix stuff as a baby, can’t do stuff without caregivers help
2m = mother will use affectionate and caressing to calm baby, will increasingly use vocalizations in their calming efforts + attempt to divert infants attention
holding + rocking + soothing = most effective and reliable
co-regulation
the process by which a caregiver provides the needed comfort or distraction to help an infant reduce their stress
self-comforting behaviours
repetitive actions that regulate arousal by providing a mildly positive physical sensation
by 5m show rudimentary
self-distraction
looking away from an upsetting stimulus in order to regulate level of arousal
increases and replaces self comforting behaviours over 1st year of life
changes due to increasing maturation of neuro systems = frontal lobes are central for managing attention and inhibiting thought and behaviours
-also changes in adults expectations of infant as they get older (eg once crawling= viewed as more responsible for their behaviours)
9-12m = aware of adults demands and begin to regulate accordingly
when does ability to inhibit their motor ability when told to do so emerge
2yo
limited in toddler years
improves considerably by ages 3-5
adolescence development in emotion regulation
chnages occur in the cortex that further contribute to self regulation and other cognitive functioning
also effective in risk taking and improvement in judgement as adolescence to adult
ie younger children - behavioural strategies
older children = cognitive strategies
selection of appropriate regulation strategies
as get older learn to pick better stategies for a particular stressor
eg more likely ot find a solution than give up
also better at distinguishing between a stressor than can and cannot be controlled (for those that cannot be controlled, older children realise it is better to adapt to the situation rather than try and change it)
social competence
the ability to achieve personal goals in social interactions while simultaneously maintaining positive relationships with others
studies show children who have the ability to inhibit innapropriate behaviours,delay gratification and use cognitive methods of controlling their emotions and behaviour tend to be well-adjusted and liked by their peers / adults
also deal better with stressful situations
if unable to regulate = victims of bullying
tempermament
individual difference in emotion, activity level and attention that are exhibited across contexts and that are present from infancy and thise thought to be genetically based
individual differences and nature vs nurture going on
research in to tempermament overview
thomas and chess - 9 characteristics of children were identified (mood adaptibility, activity level, attention span, persistence) - from parents providing details on infant specific behaviours.
further analysis = classified into 3 groups
between-persons approach
1 easy babies
2 difficult babies
3 slow-to-warm-up babies
easy babies
adjusted readily to new situations , quickly established daily routines and generally were cheerful in mood and easy to calm down
40%
difficult babies
were slow to adjust to new experiences, tended to react negatively and intensely to new situations/ events and were irregular in their daily routines and bodily fuctions
10%
slow-to-warm-up babies
were somewhat difficult at first but became easier over time as they had repeated contact with new objects, people and situations
measuring tempermament
now are classified along a set of dimensions
all have some level of each
disgreement on number of dimensions
5 = fear, distress / anger/ frustration, attention span, activity level and smiling / laughter
-measures in both infancy and childhood
-from parents, teachers and observers
-average scores of how well a statement fits target child and asked to specifically respond to several items about each dimension of tempermament
ratings of tempermament
fairly stable over time
predict later development in behvaioural problems, anxiety disorders and social competence
physiological measures of emotion reactions
diff tempermament - diff variability in tempermament
heart-rate variability = thought to reflect the way CNS responds to novel situations + individuals ability to regulate emotion
-EEG recordings - frontal lobe activity. activation of left = approach behaviours, positive affect, exploration and sociabliity. happy and relaxed exploring new things
activation of right = withdrawal, state of uncertainty, fear and anxiety. more likely to react with fear and avoidance to novel situations
evaluation of parental reports of tempermament
extensive knowledge and in mnay different situations
but not objective = doesn’t always match what is found in the lab
no idea of normal / other kids to compare it to
evaluation of lab reports of tempermament
less likely to be biased
but limited observation time / set of circumstances - so given moment and not general tempermamanet
best to use a variety of measures
stability of tempermament
stable over time
3-6yo much more stable than aged 0-3yo
some aspects may not emerge until childhood or adolescence and may change considerably with age
genes switching on and off during dev = changes in the degree to which behaviours are affected by genes
determinants of tempermament
bio + genetics
identical twins = more similar in aspects of their emotion and regulation than frat twins
connections between individuals genes and aspects of tempermament (eg self-regulating capacity)
eg dopamine and voluntary attentional processes
environment
-prebirth = teratogens
-once born, behaviour of the parent
active child
child’s tempermament effect parent and environment
twin study in tempermament (2)
twin who receives more warm and responsive parenting = fewer emotional problems and exhibited more positive affect and more prosocial behaviours
807 twin pairs
parents report on both child’s tempermamanet
stat analysis = how similar the twins were
large proportion of the variance in 3 aspects of tempermament (effortful control, negative affectivity and extraversion) = explained by heritability
also found home environment (chaotic and unsafe) also had a heritable component = passive gene-environment correlation
role of tempermament in social skils and maladjustment
role in determining childs social adjustment
too inhibited = anxiety, depression and social withdrawal
longitudinal study in NZ followed and still finding tempermament effects 30 years later
goodness of fit
the degree to which an individuals tempermament is compatible with the demands and expectations of his or her social environment
family = most important for goodness of fit - eg children whose parents rated them as high in shyness had fewer problems with their peers and emotional problems if mothers were high in warmth
differential susceptibility
a circumstance in which the same tempermament charactersitcs that put some children at high risk for negative outcomes when exposed to a harsh environment also cause them to blossom when their home environment is positive
orchids = children with susceptble / highly responsive tempermaments = thrive in good environment but crash in bad environment
dandelions = less sensitive to the environment
evidence for the above but all childen obviously benefit from positive parenting
role of family in emotional development
childrens primary environment at first
implicit = quality of relationships and own expressions of emotions
explicit = parents reactions to childs emotions, teaching of emotion display rules
good quality parent-child relationship = sense of secuirty
-effects childs tendencies to express certain emotions
secuerly attached
open, honest, express emotions
high quality and trusting relationships with their parents = more happiness, less socially anxious and anger
parents expressions of emotions
influences childs view about themself and others in their social world
model
may affect childs general levels of distress and arousal in social interactions and their ability to process important info about the interactions that would help them moderate their own behaviour
still faced study
4 m infant
described in lectures
more intense distress in 2nd still faces episode
emotion socialization
the process through which children aquire the values, standards, skills, knowledge and behaviours that are regarded as appropriate for their present and future role in the particular culture
parents reactions to childs emotions
influence childs tendencies to express emotions and their social competence and adjustment
supportive parents = socially competent kids
more mother responds contingently to their childs emotions = more child feels validated = better adjusted, better at school etc
supportive parental reactions = especially helpful in reducing problem behaviours for children who have difficulty regulating their physiological responses to challenges
cultural comparisons of parents reacting to childs emotions
!kung sen = respond within 10 seconds to infants cries =infants cry less than in the west
tamang, nepal = sem calm and clear of emotion. people should not express anger as disruptive effects on interpersonal relationships
=responsive to infants often scold children older than 2yo who show anger - but this doesn’t seem to have a negative effect on social competence (but this style used on us kids does have a negative effect) - different meanings for different cultures
emotion coaching
parents not only discuss emotions with children but also help them learn ways to cope with their emotions and express them appropriately. kids do better with this type of guidance
longitudinal study into emotional discussion
degree to which children exposed to and participante in discussions of emotions with family members at 2 and 3yo predict their understanding of others emotions until at least 6yo
mothers references to childrens…
desires at 15m predicts their childs understanding of emotion and use of emotional language at 24m
same with references to mental states
parents ideas of usefullness of specific emotions…
vary depending on context in which the family lives = adaptve
consitent with brofrenbrenners bioecological model
cuture = influences which emotions are encouraged and discouraged
parents = responsible for guiding children in social norms
eg chinese parents induce shame in their preschool kids when they transgress = shame showed by the family
in western cultures mothers make children feel better when shamed
cultural differnces when teaching about emotions
chinese = focus on behaviours than can cause or resolve emotional states whereas western = talk about internal emotional states
culture and anger
japanese vs american preschool kids
what they would do in hypothetical situation of conflict and distress
america = more anger and aggression
american mothers = more likely to encourage children to express their emotions in situations like this
west = high value on self-assertion and expression of emotions
japan = interdependence, subordinations of onseself to ones group, maintain harmonious relationships
mental health
children sense of well-being both internally, such as in their emotions and stress levels, as well as externally such as in their relationships with fmaily members and peers
-important component in emotional development
continuum - changes day to day
concern about it at all stages of development
promoted in safe and healthy environments and suportive and nurturing caregivers
stress
a physiological reaction to some change or threat in the environment
heart rate, bp etc = fight or flight
adrenal cortex secretes steroid hormones (cortisol) = activates energy resources
individual differences in childs basline cortisol level has been related to levels of inhibition, anxiety and social withdrawal and emotion regulation and behaviour problems
can be adaptive motivator
problematic when becomes chronic
toxic stress
the experience of ovewhelming levels of stress without support from adults to help mitigate the effects of the stress
- regions of the brain become overloaded (amygdala and hippocampus) = suffer atrophy of neuron dendrites and shrinkage
- can be permament and lead to long term changes in both response to stress and in stress related chronic disease in adulthood
sources of toxic stress in children
maltreatment
poverty and material deprivation
war
adverse childhood experiences study
ACE
17000 adult participants indicated their exposure to various ACEs
64% at least 1
12.5% = 4+
physical abuse = most common
then substance abuse then divorced parents
more ACEs = greater risk of stress, anxiety, depression, severe obesity, smoking and alcoholism
toxic stress in childhood may primes children to experience high levels of stress in adulthood as well
some evidence exposure to non-stressfull environment = can reverse some effects pf toxic stress
public health = prevent circumstances that trigger toxic stress in the first place
community education, recognition of toxic stress
traumatic stress
a single major event triggers it
eg earthquake, terrorist event
children tend to experience unusually high levels of emotions such as fear and anxiety and tend to experience mood disorders such as depression and PTSD
mental disorders
a state of having problems with emotional reactions to the environment and with social relationships in ways that affect daily life
repeated trauma in early childhood / traumatic stress
chronic, may persist from childhood to adulthood
difficult to diagnose, often manifest as disruptive or aggressive behaviours
equinfinality
the concept that various causes can lead to the same mental disorder
multifinality
the concept that certain risk factors do not always lead to a certain mental disorder
depression
a mental disorder that involves a sad or irritable mood along with physical and cognitive changes that interfere with daily life
sad or irritable for period of tw weeks + physical and cognitive symptoms (sleeping, concentration, interests)
asolescence = increased risk, girls = 2/3 times more liekly
more cortisol
diff brain structures - prefrontal cortex, amygdala
heritability
gender diiference in adolescence depression
early + middle childhood = girls more internalizing emotions (sadness, anxiety)
bio changes at puberty = harder for girls
more chronic stress from social interactions
body image
clear risk for depression = early puberty in girsl, potentially due to engaging with older boys earlier, pressure, drinking etc
boys who enter puberty early and move through it quickly = also at risk, decline in quality of relationships?
rumination
the act of focusing on ones own negative emotions and negative self appraisals and on their causes and consequences without engaging in efforts to improve ones situation
more in girls
particularly more feminine girls
= conforming to gender linked identities?
co-rumination
extensively discussing and self-disclosing emotional problems with another person
more prevalent in girls
nurture factors in depression
low levels of parental sensitivity, support or acceptance
high levels of parental negativity
depressed parents = increased likelihood in children
adverse experiences, risk factors, traumatic events
cognitive factors in depression
unrealistic expectations about social relationships
put themself at fault in negative events
ruminate alot about negative events
precede or consequence of depression?
relationship problems = again cause or consequence
== visicious cycle
personal vulnerabiltiy and stress
middle school transition, those who felt they had little contorl over their success in school + demonstrated very little investment in school = increased likelihood of showing an increase in depressive symptoms
anxiety disorders
a set of menta disorders that involve the inability to regulate fear and worry
intense, impairing
over-active amygdala, hippocampus and sympathetic nervous system
overprotective parenting
separation anxiety (as abnormal)
normative when young if severe and persistent = disrder intrusive, demand constant attention panic attacks decrease as get older (also decrease in phobias) but increase in panic and agoraphobia
treatment of mental disorders
SSRIs in kids
risk of suicidal thinking
CBT = recognise and change maladaptive thoughts - most effective therapy
combination = effective, but many dont receive treatment
non-white, disadvantaged = less likely to receive treatment
shortage in practioniners, but new laws = insurance must have equal converage of mental and physical health
friends and the internet
easier but cyberbullying risks
amanda todd
adolescent in british colombia
blackmailed and bullied by a man she met online
circulated revealing photos of her on fb
bullied and shunned by her peers or it, ostracised at school and physically abused for it
aftermath = engaged in risky behaviours (drinking, drugs, cutting herself, sex)
suicide attmept prevented by family
peers continued to bully
moved school, photos followed
posted a youtube video describing what she had been through
killed herself
peers
people of aprrox the same age and status who are unrelated to one another
peer relationships
views of piaget and vygotsky
special opportunity for childs dev
piaget = because children are relatiely equal in social status = tend to be more open and spontaneous when expressing their ideas and beliefs wit peers than with adults
vygotsky = children learn new skills and develop their cognitive capactities in peer interactions; he emphasised the ways in which childrens working together helps to build new skills and abilities as well as convey the knowledge and skills valued by the culture
who tends to have a friend
most children at every stage of development accross all cultures = at least one same-sex peer who they consider a friend
-like to spend time together and feel affectionate for one another
interactions are characterised by reciprocities = friends have mutual regard for one another, give and take behaviour and benfit in comparable ways from their social exchanges
define friend
a person with whom an individual has an intimate, reciprocal, positive relationship
childrens choice of friends
tend to be friends with peers who are social and act prosocially towards others
similarity of interests + behaviours also important (cognitive maturity in play, levels of cooperations, antisocial behaviours, acceptance by peers, shyness)
more similar than non-friends in academic motivations, self-perception of competence
share similar levels of negative emotions and similar in their tendencies to attribute hostile intentions to others
proximity
similar activities
similar age (most industrialised countires, diff cultures = less age based)
gender
gender and friendships
cross-gendered freidnships (not uncommon) = more fragile
liking of other gender peers increases over the course of childhood (8-11 grade)
ethnicity and friendships
less marked than gender
tendency to be friends with own racial / ethnic group
youths who maintain cross-racial friendships = tend to be leaders and relatively inclusive in their social relationships + socially competent + high in self-esteem
but costs = lower emotional well-being, cannot support each other as easily
culture and peers experience
china = children who are unsociable tend to have adjustment problems
collectivist culture norms
boasting in us = normal, in china = emphasises their interest in helping peers improve
cultural importance of friends vs fmaily (latino = family > peers)
cultural differences in freedom given to children eg unschooled, unindustrial societies boys lots of freedom, girls relatively little
differences in relational and physical aggression in friendships (but regardless of culture, boys more physcially aggressive than girls)
longitudinal study looking at friendships
despite differences in culture, children followed a remarkably similar pattern of development in the complexity of their friendship descriptions across childhood = universal development
12-18m and friendships
display a preference for some children over others (touching, smiling, engaging in positive interactions)
24m and friendships
have began to develop skills that allow greater complexity in their social interactions including imitating peers social behaviours, engaging in cooperational problem solving, trading roles during play
3/4yo and friendships
make and maintain friendships with peers
can identify “best friend”
cooperation and coodination in childrens interactions continues to increase sibstantially from toddler to preschool
pretend play
occurs more often amony friends - experiences with one another, trust their partners + work to interpret and share meaning of symbolic actions
friends….. (arguing)
quarrel more and will express more hostility to one another
greater amount of time spent together
more likely to resolve conflict in direct ways whereas nonfriends avoid
friends also more likely to resolve conflict on equal outcomes rather than a winning and a losing friend
so more likely to restore their interactions and have positive feelings for one another
5yo and friendship
muture enough to take responsibility for conflict and to give reasons for their disagreements, increasing the likelihood of their maintaining their friendship
level and importance of initmacy changes
6-8yo and friendships
defined primarily on basis of actual activities with their peers and tend to define best friends as peers with whom they play all the time and share everything
also view friends in terms of rewards and costs
instrumental concrete views
early school years to adolsecence and friendships
increasingly define their friendships as characteristics such as similairty in attitudes/ interests, acceptance, trust, mutual admiration and loyaty
9yo and friendships
more sensitive to the needs of others and inequalities among people
adolescence frienships
context for self-exploration and working out personal problems
increasingly important source of intimacy and disclosure with age
cource of honest feedback
-more exclusive in adolescence
-better quality, more highly valued
-less stable than middle school
why does friendship change with age
selman = changes in childrens reasoning about friendhsips = consequences of age related qualitative changes in their ability to take others perspectives
young children = limited awareness that others may feel or think differently so friendships = not far off own needs met
as children begin to realise that friendships involve consideration of both parties needs so relationship = mutually satisfying
tech and friendships
12-17yo texting = most common way to communicate with friends (phone calls and social media = slightly less popular)
gender diffences = boys game
how electronic communication facilitates the creation and maintanence of friendships among children
greater anonymity = less social inhbition less emphasis on physical apperance more control over interactions finding similar ppers 24/7 access fun
rich get richer hypothesis
those already with good social skills benefit from internet
social-compensation hypothesis
may be especially beneficial for lonely, depresed and socially anxious adolesence = can take time thinking about what they are going to manage, more likely to make personal disclosures = form new friendships
evidence supporting richer-get richer hypothesis
adolesence who are not socially anxious or lonely use the internet for communication more often than adolesence who are anxious and lonely
youths who are better adjusted at ages 13-14 were found to use social networking more at ages 20-22 and exhibit similarity in online and oflfine socil competence
in contrast with youths who are shy and withdrawn = inappropriately vent anger online
so socially competent benefit and incompetent dont
evidence for social compensation hypothesis
lonely and socially anxious prefer online communication
high levels of depressive symptoms = use online to make friends and communicate their feelings = associated with less depression
so may provide depressed or those with lower quality friendships a method of communicating and pbtaining emotional intimacy with peers
internet and existing friends
strengthens
but is internet primarily used for entertainment or communicating with strangers = can harm the quality of friendships and predicts increases in anxiety and depression
cyberbullying
on the rise
rumour spreading = most common form
girls and LGBTQ+ = most at risk
more common in classrooms where students are accepting of bullying
bully / victim = same as in real life but many cybervictims are also perpertrators = perhaps retaliation
all based on correlational research
perpertrators may benefit socially from their behaviour
cyberbullying behaviour significantly correlated with physical bullying behaviour
school based interventions to help prevent cyberbulllying
no trap - peer educators to raise awareness
correct beliefs cyberbullying = normal
media heroes = increase emphathy for victims
cyber friendly schools = appropriate and inappropriate “netiquette”
friendships impact on psych functioning and behaviour
emotional support and validation and opportunities for development
less lonely
chronic no friends =
more likely to develop symptoms of depression and social withdrawal
friendships in transitions
important
young children have a more positive attitude toward school if they begin school with a large number of established friends as classmates = environment less strange
buffer against unpleasant experiences - especially true if friends = intimacy, secuirty and help when needed
study on friends and unpleasant situations
when a best friend was not present, the more negative children’s everyday experiences wer and greater incidence in their cortisol levels and greater decline in their sense of self worth
but if best friend present = less change in cortisol response and childs self-worth
degree to which friendship provides care and support increases from childhood to adolesence eg in 16 yo girsl more important than parents
development of social and cognitive skills in the context of friends
is the context for development of skills and knowledge to form positive relationships with others
eg positive behaviours = more common among friends
young children who discuss emotions with their friends = better understanding of others mental and emotional states
role of gossip
learn about norms
friends more likely to criticise and expand on one anothers ideas and to elaborate and clarify their own ideas
study on teams of friends compares to nonfriends
more constructive conversations among friends and more focused on task
stories better written, higher quality
longitudinal study on children and best friends
children who had bes friends were viewed by their classmates as more mature, less aggressive and more socially prominent
13 year later = those who had best friends = greater success in college, family and social lives. higher levels of self-esteem, fewer legal problems and less psychopathology
possible costs of friendships
elementary school = children with antisocial and aggressive friends = exhibit antisocial, delinquent and aggressive behaviours themselves
but merely correlational data…
deviancy training
youths who are antisocial may both model and reinforce aggression and deviance in one another by making these behaviours seem acceptable
found as early as age 5 = predicts antisocial and delinquent behaviour into adolescents
longitudinal study on how friends change delinquent and aggresive behaviour
early adolesents both affected an were affected by their peers
16-20yo antisocia behaviour reinforced only by socialiazation with friends
+20yo little evidence of either process
alcohol and substance abuse and friends
same story as with aggression and same correlational problems
genetic: youths with similar genetic caused tempermaments (eg risk taking) = drawn together
parents who are authoritative (high in control an warmth) = can protect teenager but parents who are authoritarian (high in control, low in warmth) = teenager more susceptible to alcohol and substance abuse
gender differences in friendships
girls = desire closeness and dependency and worry about abandonment, loneliness and hurting other peoples feelings, peer evaluations and loss of relationships if they experience anger
girls get more upset if betrayed
-more friendship related stress
-more fragile friendships and shorter duration
-more likely to co ruminate
average gender differences
genetic sex differences in brain structures and hormone effects
sex
genetic females (XX) vs genetic males (XY)
gender
social assignment or self-categorization as female or male, possibly neither / different category)
gender-typed behaviours
stereotyped or expected for a given persons gender
cross-gender-typed behaviours
stereotypes or expected for the gender other than that of a given person
gender typing
the process of gender socialization
theoretical approaches to gender development
bio - sex hormones, brain structure
cognitive - motivational, learning gender-typed roles (observation and practice)
cultural factors - status of men and women
evolutionary psychology theory
certain behavioural tendencies occur because they helped humans survive during the course of evolution
some suggest particular gender differences in behaviours reflect evolved personality dispositions. argue sex-linked dispositions evolved to increase the chances men and women will successfully mate and protect their offspring
studies of childs play behaviour
show average gender differences = interpreted as distinct with evolutionary perspective
eg boys play fighting = evolutionary tendency to practice the competencies that were associated with male-male competition during human evolution
=reproductive advantage
girls = devoted to establishing and maintaining positive social relationships, play parenting, nurture and other affiliative behaviour
controversies of evolutionary psychology theory
circular argument
can be constructed as a rationalism for maintaining the status quo in traditional gender roles = bio contraints of gender development
bisocial theory of gender development
observeable differences between the sexes
differences = behavioural +social consequences
capacity for behavioural flexibility as one adaption to eviornmental variability
1 mens greater average size and foot speed = hunting and increased social status
2 womens child bearing and nursing capacities, limited mobility and involvement in economic subsidance
but bio does not equal destiny
how bio does not equal destiny in gender
today tech industries = strength unimportant, accordingly gender equality has increased (but not equal)
also reproductive control = can manage / stay in abour force
both physcial sex differences and social ecology shape the different gender roles assigned to men and women and socialization of boys and girls
criticisms of biosocial
body and mind evolved together
only adresses bodys impact on gender development
both theories of gender development
importance of evolution and the physical differences between women and men
bust evolutionary psych increased role of sex differences in eolved genetic traits
neuroscience approach to gender development
bio sex = xx or xy
rodents = evidence for direct genetic influences on gender-typed behaviour
eg mice study - genes in y chromosome and later levels of some aspect of aggressive and parenting behaviours
no evidence in humans, only indirect evidence of possible genetic effectes mediated by the production of hormones
define andrgoens
class of sterois hormones that normally iccur at higher levels in males than in females and that affect physical development and functioning from the prenatal period onwards production = male genetelia, have organisation and activating influences on the nervous system
organizing influences
potential result of certain sex-linked hormones affecting brain differentiationg and organization during prenantal development or at puberty
activating influences
potential result of certain fluctuations in sex-linked hormone levels affecting the contemporaneous activation of the nervous system and corresponding behavioural responses
box 15.1 gender identity - more than socialization
normally consistent with observeable gentelia and gender socialization
worng body view in kids thought to be established as impervious to parental attempts to socialize child as a member of what the child thinks is the wrong sex
prefer cross gendered play, clothing, activities
dislike gender typed activities
usually appears early in development
occurs mostly in boys
difficult to alter even with parental socialization
suggests bio component of gender identity
so should it be a psych dis in children
gender dysphoria
psychiatric diagnosis included in the DSM5 to refer to children who experience distress because they do not identify with gender assigned to them at birth
reflects societal expectancies for gender-role conformity rather than an inherent disorder
some argue for a broader notion of gender
transgender
individuals who do not identify with then gender assigned at birth (their bio sex)
may prefer other,both or neither gender
cisgender
individuals who identify with their gender assigned at birth (or their bio sex)
gender roles
more flexible in many ciltires and increasing tolerance and acceptance of transgender kids
but still many rejected and vistimized = suicide risk
intersex conditions
received genes that cause (rare) one person to develop genital characterstics typical of the other genetic sex
congential adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)
condition during prenatal development in which the adrenal glands produce high levels of androgens; sometimes associated with masculinization of external genitelia in genetic females and sometimes associated with higher rates of masculine-sterotypes play in genetic females
influences on androgens on development
CAH = more liekly boysih / rough and tumble play
androgen insensitivity syndrom (AIS)
condition during prenantal development in which androgen receptors malfunction in genetic males, impeding the formation of males external genetelia; in these cases, the child may be born with female external genetelia
common self-identify as girls and generally show preference for feminine stereotyped behaviours
what do we use CAH and AIS for
evidence to support premise that prenatal androgens may partly contribute to boys and girls gender identities and to gender typed play preferences
also used to support evolutionary theories of gender development
sex differences in brain structure and functioning
small differences in physical structures
no clear advantages
unclear if differences due to genetic or environmental influence
also unclear if these differences lead to differences in ability or behaviour
cognitive and motivational influences on gender
children learn gender typed behaviours through observation, inference and practice = form expectations
self socialization
active process during development whereby childrens cognitions lead them to perceive the world and to act in accord with their expectations and beliefs
cognitie theories stress childrens active self-socialization
individuals use their beliefs, expectations and preferences to guide how they perceive the world and the activities they chose
kohlberg’s cognitive development theory
gender-role development, reflects piagetian framework
children actively construct knowledge about gender in the same ways that piaget theorized children construct knowledge about physical world
1 children actively seek to understand the meaning of gender through observing and interacting with the world around them
2 cognitive developmental changes in childrens understanding of gender during early childhood, kohlberg = 3 stage process between 2-6yo
kohlberg’s 3 stage process
30 months = gender identitiy, self-identify as boy or girl but do not reliase gender is permament
3-4yo = gender stability, awareness gender remains the same over time. however still not clear that gender is independent of superficial appearance and they believe that a boy who puts a dress on and looks like a girl is now a girl
here begin to attedn to same gender models and learn how to behave
6yo = gender constancy, realization gender is invariant despite superficial changes in a persons appearance or behaviour
note this last stage = same age children begin to suceed at piagetian conservation problems = same underlying thinking patterns
gender schema theory
the motivation to enact gender typed behaviours begins as soon as children label other peoples and their own genders (3yo)
define gender schema
organized mutual representations about gender, including gender sterotypes
own memories and sterotypes trasmitted directly by adults and peers and media
ingroup and outgroup gender schema
simply learning an unfmailiar object = for my gender = children more likely to like it
responsible for biased processing and remembering information about gender
study children and ungender toys
more likely to explore boxes labelled for thei gender than other gender (all toys were unfamiliar and gender neutral)
a week later remembered more details about the objects they had explored
how children can infer gender appropriate behaviour
look to their parents
study - boy were influenced by the number of same-gender children who were playing with a set of toys
gender schema and biased processing
children remember more about what thet observe from same gender role models than from cross gendered ones
more likely to accurately encode and remember info about story characters that behave in gender consistent ways and to forget / distort info that is gender inconsistent
eg pictures of girls baking cookies and girl sawing wood = later asked to recall images and mistakenly gender types them
so we maintain info that is schema consistent and ignore / distort infor that isnt
2 types of filter when eoncountering new toys
gender schema - initial evaluation of info as relevant to ones own gender, resistant to change by can be modified by explicit instruction
interest filter - initial evaluation of info as being interesting
interest filter can just = fun and attractive, then modified by gender schema. allows for the fact children sometime persue cross-gender typed activites simply because they enjoy them
cognitive gener intervention program
elementary school kids learned a persons interests and abilities = important for kind of job (and not gender)
week long = decreased gender sterotyping and btter memory for gender inconsistent stimuli
but impact typically fades once intervention done = need to be sustained to have a longer lasting effect
social identity theory
tajifel and turner
group membership on peoples self concept and behaviour with other
developmental psych applied to childs socialization and highlighta the importance of gender as a social identitiy in childs development
ingroup bias
tendency to evaluate individuals and characteristics of the ingroup as superior to those of the outgroup
ingroup assimilation
process whereby individuals are socialized to conform to the groups norms, demonstrating the characteristics that define the ingroup
=children tend to become more gender typed in their preferences as they assimilate into their same-gender peer groups
intersectionality
the interconnection of social identities such as gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation and dress especially in relation to overlapping experiences of discrimination
social congnitive theory
bussy and bandura
triadic model of reciprocal causations
-personal factors
-environmental factors
-behaviour patterns
key factors = sociocognitive models of influence, observational learning procedures and self-regulatory processes
4 key learning processses - attention, memory, production and motivation
children monitor behaviour and decide how well it matches personal standards. evaluation. pride or shame depending on how it meets their personal statements
by social cognitive theory learn occurs through
tuition - learning through direct teaching
enactive experience - learning to take into account the reactions and past behaviour has evolved in others
observational learnin - learning through watching other people and the consequences others experience as as result of their actions
self-efficacy
develops gradually through practice
through social modelling
social persuation
researchers consistently find strong relation between feelings of self-efficacy and motiavtion
bioecological model ad gender
interconnected systems with the child and childs environment
-microsystem (immediate)
-macrosystem (culture)
-chronosystem (changes over course of dev)
=systems interact to influence childs dev
opportunity structure
the economic and social response offered by the macrosystem in the bioecological model and peoples understanding of these resources
so gender typing practices perpetuate as well as reflect the existing opportunity structure in a particular community in a particular time in history`
box 15.2 where are spongesally square pants and curious jane
gender representation of tv and movie characters
changed little over past 4 decades
cartoons are slightly better
not just number but also sterotypes reinforced
6 hours a day = average for kids
so major source of info, so matters
eg children who watch a lot of tv = more highly sterotypical beliefs and preferences gender-typed activities
causal study = children randomly assigned to gender sterotypes or neutral cartoon = more likely to endorse gender sterotypes themselves after watching gender sterotyped programs
books and computers = same story
odd exception eg hunger games and katniss
