Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

PSYC 101 - developmental > Reading Points - midterm 3 > Flashcards

Reading Points - midterm 3 Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
Physics 101 flashcards Psychology 101 flashcards Chemistry 101 flashcards Biology 101 flashcards Organic Chemistry 101 flashcards Sociology 101 flashcards
1
Q

marshmallow test

A

1960s
wait 15 mins to get second
ability to delay immediate gratification for larger rewards
indicator of self control or will power = predicted later life success
followed these kids for 4 decades
-more intelligent etc higher SAT scores. by 30 higher education level, self-esteem and coped better with stress
even carried to 40 years later
scanned = differences in prefrontal cortex between adults with high and low delay as preschoolers = some bio basis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

in the wake of the marshmallow test what do schools now promote

A 
social emotional skills
-self-control
self-regulation
ability to get along with others
=SEL social emotional learning
did improve social skills and also academic achievement
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

define emotions

A

neural and physiological responses to the environment, subjective feelings, cognitions related to those feelings and the desires to take action
combination of physiological and cognitive responses to thoughts or experiences

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

components of emotions

A

neural responses
physiological factors including heart rate, breating rate and hormone levels
subjective feelings
emotoinal expressions
the desire to take action, including the desire to escape, approach or change people or things in the environment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

role of cognition in emotion

A

do we have the physiological response first then label it fear ot vice-versa?

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

discrete emotions theory

A

a theory about emotions in which emotions are viewed as innate and discrete from one another from very ealry in life and each emotoin is believed to be packaged with a specific and discrete set of bodily and facial reactions
-Darwin
emotional responses = largely automatic and not based on cognition

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

evidence to support discrete emotions theory

A

infants express a set of recogniseabel, discrete emotions well before they can be actively taught about them
similar eomtional facial expressions have been observed around the world but cultures vary in how they label
vocalizations of basic emotions (anger, joy, sadness) = recognizeable accross different cultural groups

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

functional perspective

A

a theory of emotoin arguing that the basic function of emotoins is to promote action toward achieving a goal. in this view, emotions are not discrete from one another and vary somewhat based on the social environment
individuals experience emotoins in order to manage the relationship between themselves and the environment
so emotions are partially a response to how an individual appraises the environment
makes emotions and emotional expression goal driven
appraisals tend to be at the self conscious level (but exceptions = children realised they can fake emotoin to illict response eg cry to get more sympathy when sibling hits them

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

example of how emotions are goal driven

A

child wants something to stop
cries
wants someting to keep going
laughs

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

what do both theories (functional perspective and discrete emotion theory) agree on

A

cognition and experience shape emotional development

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

the emergence of positive emotions

A

happiness - infants express a smile
1 month old = during REM sleep
after 1 month = sometimes smile when gently stroked
may be reflexive = evolved bio state to keep caregiver
some evidence newborns less than a day old smile when being touched
3-8 week = begin to smile to external stimuli
3-4months = laugh and smile - smile more at people than at puppet like balls
also show smiles when they realise they can control events
7months = smile at familiar people (unfamiliar people = distress), selective smiles = motivate parents, strengthens parent child bond as exchange of positive affect
increases over first year of life
late 1st year = laugh at discrepancies (eg dad wearing a silly hat
then language = humour develops further

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

box 10.1 Basic emotional expressions in infants

A

internal states but expressed through facial expressions and body movements
early emotion expressions seem to support bio + evo basis
coding = AFFEX (links particular facial expressions and facial movements with particular emotion)
play videos in slow motion (eg kid being vaccinated) to evaluate emotions that can last less than a second
has been used to demonstrate links between children’s emotional expressions and their emotion regulation skills and social behaviour
one study = the more 3-5 yo expressed anger and sadness in a lab task = the more they displayed mutual health and behaviour problems in their classrooms 6 months later

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

AFFEX - happiness

A

smiling, either with a closed mouth or with an open upturned mouth; raised cheeks, which in turn make the eyes squint a bit

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

AFFEX - anger

A

strongly furrowed brown that comes down in the center, almost making an X of the brow muscles; open square-shaped mouth, sometimes baring teeth; flared nostrils

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

AFFEX - surprise

A

eyes wide open; eyebrows raised into arches; mouth open in a round o shape

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

AFFEX - sadness

A

downturned corners of the outh, lips pushed together and possibly trembling, slightly furrowed brow

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

AFFEX - fear

A

eyes wide open; brows raised in the middle, making a triangle shape; corners of mouth pulled back into a grimace, with mouth wither open or closed

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

AFFEX - disgust

A

nose crinkled and nostrils flares; mouth open wide with lips pulled back and possibly with tongue sticking out

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

social smile

A

smiles that are directed at people; they first emerge as early as 6-8 weeks
liekly promote care from parents and older adults + strengthen relationships with other people

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

infants showing a smile when realise they can control events

A

string to arm of infant
1/2 = controls music, other music is random
infants who caused music = showed more interest and smiling to the music

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

emergence of fear in infants

A

4months = wary of unfamiliar events and objects

6/7 months = initial signs of fear begin to appear, strangers in particular

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

fear of strangers

A

6/7 months
reflects infants recognise that unfamiliar people do not provide comfort and pleasure tat familiar people do
fear of strangers intensifies and lasts until about 2yo
is varibale - tempermament + context of stranger

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

strangers experiment

A

4months, 8 months, 12 months and 16 months
experimenter (stranger) = slowly approach infant whilst mother sat close by
talked and picked up infant
observer rated face by AFFEX (no fear 0-4 fear), also rated distress in vocalisations
no fear at 4m, steep increase at 8m (is clearly in place).
after 8m = infants have more experience with noel situations so maintain some variation but do not become any more distressed

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

fear of strangers is…

A

adaptive

babies cnanot escape so must rely on parent to protect them

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

why are there individual differences in infants reactions to strangers

A

quality of child’s relationship with their mother + how effectievly mum deals with their childs experience of fear

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

separation anxiety

A

feelings of distress that children (esp infants and toddlers) experience when they are separated or expect to be separated from individuals whom they are emotionally attached to
-varies with context
-less distress when child can crawl away themself vs parent leaves them
-8-13/15 months = increases then decreases
-many cultures, adaptive, normal = encourages close proximity to adults who can protect and provide for them and their needs
but extreme levels = mental health

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

when does fear of imaginary creatures occur

A

preschool = cognitive abilites to represent imaginary phenomena

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

when are kids able to differentiate between real and imaginary fear

A

school age (5/6yo)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

childrens anger

A

response to frustrating or threatening situations = interpersonal experience
rarely expressed as a single emotion (sadness too usually)
1yo = clear anger expression

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

functionalist perspective of anger

A

person is more liekly to e angry with another person than an object + more liekly to be angry in certain contexts more than others

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

experiment to ilicit anger in infants

A

anger ilicited by infant held in mums arms and attractive toy placed in table infornt of them = frustrating
AFFEX
moderate anger at 4m
steadily increases over next year
peaks 18-24m
3-6yo = less negative emotion in structured lab tasks designed to elicit it
decline in anger = ability to use language as form of expression and regulate their emotions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

how causes of infants anger change over time

A

early preschool= when harmed by peer whether intentional or not = same respinse
school age = understand motives / intentionality and act accordingly
older = more anger at home with families but is typically low in intensity, prehaps in conjunction with developing separate identites from their parents

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

sadness in infants

A

often exhibited in same situations as anger
less frequent than anger or distress
older infants / young children = intense prolonged displays of sadness when separated from parents for extended periods + are not given sensitive care

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

how is fear adaptive

A

draws in attention and support from caregivers who can help

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

surprise in infants

A

emotional reaction to sudden, unexpected event
more than physical startle (this is displayed from birth)
involves a cognitive understanding something is not as it usually is
6 months = surprise appears
tends to be brief, usually changing into another emotion
effected by emotional environment provided by their parent

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

scotland surprise study

A

infants with mothers showing depressed symptoms = showed less surprise to jack in the box
mums = same
infants express emotoins influenced by how strongly their caregivers express emotoins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

disgust in infants

A

evolutionary basis = avoid potential poison / disease causing bacteria
learnt based on culture (eg insect eating in some cultures)
thought to be innate and occur well before children are able to communicate with others

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

name the 4 self-conscious emotions

A

guilt, shame, embarrasment and pride

-relate to our sense of self and our consciousness + others reactions to us

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

when do self-conscious emotoins emerge

A

2/3yo

increases

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

guilt

A

empathy for others + feelings of remorse and regret about one’s own behaviour as well as desire to undo the consequences of that behaviour

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

shame

A

focus on themself, exposed, want to hide

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

study to show shame and huilt reactions in toddlers

A

2yo play with toy doll that would break while experimenter was out of the room
some = shame, avoided adult, delayed telling them about mishap
some = guilt, repaired doll, told adult shortly after they returned
individual differences in guilt observed at 22m = remained stable accross preschool years

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

study of north american kids, when are they more liekly to experience guilt

A

when they have done something wrong and their parents emphasise the badness of the behaviour rather than the child
also more likely when parents helped them understand the consequences of their actions to others and teach them to repair the harm they have done, avoid publically humiliating them and communicate respect and love for child even when disciplining them

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

how self conscious emotions vary accross cultures

A

japan = no praise on the individual, so less likely to report pride as a consequence of personal success
asian = welfare of the group more important = report guilt and shame more
in these cultures parents effortd to elicit shame from their children = direct and disparaging
this kind of explicit belittling = more positive effect on asian than western children eg you made your mother lose face, never seen a 3yo as bad as you

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

understanding emotions is critical in the development of….

A

social competence

primitive in infancy but develops rapidly over course of childhood

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

development of understand emotions in other

A 
3m = can distinguish happiness, surprise and anger (habituation paradigm used)
7m = fear, sadness and interest - show different patterns of brain waves
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

studying of perceived emotional expression of others as meaningful

A

facial expression and voice = consistent emotion and face expression and voice inconsistent
-attend more to presentation that is emotionally consistent (but under 7m dont notice the difference between the 2 presentations)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

study of emotion understanding of others in 12-14m vs 16-18m

A

12-14 did not distinguish between objects that had been associated with each emotion
but 16-18m = strongly preffered toys associated with surprise and happy faces and strongly avoided toys associated with fear or anger

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

social referencing

A

the use of a parents or other adults facial expressions of vocal cues to decide how to deal with novel, ambiguous or possibly threatening situations

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

12m study of social referencing

A

stay with mum and fear towards novel objects if she expresses positive emotions and partly towards if no emotions
-same shown with mums tone of voice

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

14m and social referencing

A

emotion-related info obtained through social referencing has an effect on child touching the object an hour later

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

what are the best cues for social referencing for children

A

when they receive both vocal and facial cues of emotoin from the adult
use of vocal = more effective than visual alone

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

labelling of facial expressions

A

3yo = rudimentary at narrow range
2yo = skilled at labelling happy
then anger and sadness develop
late preschool / early school = surprise and disgust
early / mid elementary = pride, shame and guilt
scope and accuracy improves into adolescence

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

how labeling of emotion is affected by the environment

A

growing up with violence or without adults they trust = develop heightened awareness to emotional cues of conflict
eg orphan in sierra leone = more likely to detect anger in facial expressions + less likely to detect sadness = self-preservation of living on the streets

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

when does ability to recognised disgust emerger

A

12-14 yo (1/3 recognise)
15-17 yo (3/4 recognise)
culturally french > americans > palestinians

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

what is emotional intelligence

A

the ability to cognitiely process information about emotions and to use the information to guide both thought and behaviours

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

what is cognitive ability

A

ability to reason, learn from and remember verbal or visual info

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

measure

A

ask participants to respond to direct statements about themselves and their abilities
-eg how true is the statement - can control my anger when i want to

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

outcomes and emotional intelligence as a child

A

better at managing emotions and less likely to engage in aggressive behaviours
fewer mental health problems, low risk behaviours and better strategies at coping with stress
predicts positive outcomes, self-estteem, personality, cognitive intelligence
so we have developed interventions to protmote better EI

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
60
Q

RULER program

A 
recognition
understanding
labelling
expressoin
regulation
more emotionally supportive and respectful of others perspectives than controls
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
61
Q

other interventions for EI

A

enhance by perceiving emotions in others + aware of how emotions influence thought processes
eg emotional poems and music as a springboard for discussion
participants = less verbal and physically aggressive and fewer mental health problems

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
62
Q

children story study of understanding certain situation provoke certain emotions

A

children told short stories
3yo= identify happy situations
4yo = identify sad situations
5yo = anger and surprise

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
63
Q

ages 4-10 better ar emotions from….

A

stories than pictures

facial expressions = often interpreted as indicating more than one emotion

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
64
Q

recording conversations of emotions at home

A

28m = mention emotions, will even mention what causes the emotions
4-6yo = accurate explanations for why their peers express negative emotions in their preschool
-get more skilled over the preschool years

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
65
Q

beliefs about being dishonest

A

3rd and 6th graders = more likely than kindergartens to blieve someone caught being dihonset = scared

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
66
Q

when do infants believe an emotion can be brought on by a memory

A

some 3 yo
all 5 yo
also can explain why people in a situation that reminds them of a particular negative past event may change their behvaiour to avoid future negative events
this ability helps children explain their own and others emotional reactions in situations which may appear emotionally neutral

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
67
Q

3 yo attempts at fake emotions

A

occasional (and very transparent) attempts to maask their negative emotions when they receive a dissapointing prize or gift

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
68
Q

5yo understanding of fake emotion

A

correctly understand someone is sad (eg forgot teddy to sleepover) really feels despite the fact he is trying to pretend he is happy to not upset his friend
-younger children did not appreciate someone could express one emotion whilst feelings another

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
69
Q

display rules

A

a social groups informal norms about when, where and how much one could show emotion and when and where displays of emotion should be surpressed or masked by displays of other emotions
-informal group norms
-requires stimulating a fake emotion and masking an emotion
=key for social interaction

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
70
Q

how kids start to understand lying

A

with age they begin to better understand that people tend to bream eye contact and avert gaze whilst lying and increasingly able to use this info to conceal their own deception

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
71
Q

deception study

A

4,6 and 8yo
3 boxes, had to pretend to dislike favourite toy in box to trick experimenter = would then win the toy
4yo = not successful, unable to stimulate joy and mask dissapointment
increase with age
improvements linked with cognitive capacities

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
72
Q

how social factors affect display rules

A

cultural differences
gender differences
parents beliefs and behaviours = often refelct cultural beliefs = contribute to childs understanding and use of display rules
eg nepal = control of emotion display varies by subculture, children seem to attend to display rules that are valued in their culture or that serve an important function in the family

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
73
Q

emotion regulation

A

a set of both conscious and unconscious processes used to both monitor and modulate emotional expressions and experiences

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
74
Q

crying in infants

A

how to fix stuff as a baby, can’t do stuff without caregivers help
2m = mother will use affectionate and caressing to calm baby, will increasingly use vocalizations in their calming efforts + attempt to divert infants attention
holding + rocking + soothing = most effective and reliable

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
75
Q

co-regulation

A

the process by which a caregiver provides the needed comfort or distraction to help an infant reduce their stress

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
76
Q

self-comforting behaviours

A

repetitive actions that regulate arousal by providing a mildly positive physical sensation
by 5m show rudimentary

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
77
Q

self-distraction

A

looking away from an upsetting stimulus in order to regulate level of arousal
increases and replaces self comforting behaviours over 1st year of life
changes due to increasing maturation of neuro systems = frontal lobes are central for managing attention and inhibiting thought and behaviours
-also changes in adults expectations of infant as they get older (eg once crawling= viewed as more responsible for their behaviours)
9-12m = aware of adults demands and begin to regulate accordingly

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
78
Q

when does ability to inhibit their motor ability when told to do so emerge

A

2yo
limited in toddler years
improves considerably by ages 3-5

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
79
Q

adolescence development in emotion regulation

A

chnages occur in the cortex that further contribute to self regulation and other cognitive functioning
also effective in risk taking and improvement in judgement as adolescence to adult
ie younger children - behavioural strategies
older children = cognitive strategies

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
80
Q

selection of appropriate regulation strategies

A

as get older learn to pick better stategies for a particular stressor
eg more likely ot find a solution than give up
also better at distinguishing between a stressor than can and cannot be controlled (for those that cannot be controlled, older children realise it is better to adapt to the situation rather than try and change it)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
81
Q

social competence

A

the ability to achieve personal goals in social interactions while simultaneously maintaining positive relationships with others
studies show children who have the ability to inhibit innapropriate behaviours,delay gratification and use cognitive methods of controlling their emotions and behaviour tend to be well-adjusted and liked by their peers / adults
also deal better with stressful situations
if unable to regulate = victims of bullying

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
82
Q

tempermament

A

individual difference in emotion, activity level and attention that are exhibited across contexts and that are present from infancy and thise thought to be genetically based
individual differences and nature vs nurture going on

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
83
Q

research in to tempermament overview

A

thomas and chess - 9 characteristics of children were identified (mood adaptibility, activity level, attention span, persistence) - from parents providing details on infant specific behaviours.
further analysis = classified into 3 groups
between-persons approach
1 easy babies
2 difficult babies
3 slow-to-warm-up babies

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
84
Q

easy babies

A

adjusted readily to new situations , quickly established daily routines and generally were cheerful in mood and easy to calm down
40%

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
85
Q

difficult babies

A

were slow to adjust to new experiences, tended to react negatively and intensely to new situations/ events and were irregular in their daily routines and bodily fuctions
10%

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
86
Q

slow-to-warm-up babies

A

were somewhat difficult at first but became easier over time as they had repeated contact with new objects, people and situations

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
87
Q

measuring tempermament

A

now are classified along a set of dimensions
all have some level of each
disgreement on number of dimensions
5 = fear, distress / anger/ frustration, attention span, activity level and smiling / laughter
-measures in both infancy and childhood
-from parents, teachers and observers
-average scores of how well a statement fits target child and asked to specifically respond to several items about each dimension of tempermament

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
88
Q

ratings of tempermament

A

fairly stable over time

predict later development in behvaioural problems, anxiety disorders and social competence

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
89
Q

physiological measures of emotion reactions

A

diff tempermament - diff variability in tempermament
heart-rate variability = thought to reflect the way CNS responds to novel situations + individuals ability to regulate emotion
-EEG recordings - frontal lobe activity. activation of left = approach behaviours, positive affect, exploration and sociabliity. happy and relaxed exploring new things
activation of right = withdrawal, state of uncertainty, fear and anxiety. more likely to react with fear and avoidance to novel situations

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
90
Q

evaluation of parental reports of tempermament

A

extensive knowledge and in mnay different situations
but not objective = doesn’t always match what is found in the lab
no idea of normal / other kids to compare it to

91
Q

evaluation of lab reports of tempermament

A

less likely to be biased
but limited observation time / set of circumstances - so given moment and not general tempermamanet
best to use a variety of measures

92
Q

stability of tempermament

A

stable over time
3-6yo much more stable than aged 0-3yo
some aspects may not emerge until childhood or adolescence and may change considerably with age
genes switching on and off during dev = changes in the degree to which behaviours are affected by genes

93
Q

determinants of tempermament

A

bio + genetics
identical twins = more similar in aspects of their emotion and regulation than frat twins
connections between individuals genes and aspects of tempermament (eg self-regulating capacity)
eg dopamine and voluntary attentional processes
environment
-prebirth = teratogens
-once born, behaviour of the parent

94
Q

active child

A

child’s tempermament effect parent and environment

95
Q

twin study in tempermament (2)

A

twin who receives more warm and responsive parenting = fewer emotional problems and exhibited more positive affect and more prosocial behaviours
807 twin pairs
parents report on both child’s tempermamanet
stat analysis = how similar the twins were
large proportion of the variance in 3 aspects of tempermament (effortful control, negative affectivity and extraversion) = explained by heritability
also found home environment (chaotic and unsafe) also had a heritable component = passive gene-environment correlation

96
Q

role of tempermament in social skils and maladjustment

A

role in determining childs social adjustment
too inhibited = anxiety, depression and social withdrawal
longitudinal study in NZ followed and still finding tempermament effects 30 years later

97
Q

goodness of fit

A

the degree to which an individuals tempermament is compatible with the demands and expectations of his or her social environment
family = most important for goodness of fit - eg children whose parents rated them as high in shyness had fewer problems with their peers and emotional problems if mothers were high in warmth

98
Q

differential susceptibility

A

a circumstance in which the same tempermament charactersitcs that put some children at high risk for negative outcomes when exposed to a harsh environment also cause them to blossom when their home environment is positive
orchids = children with susceptble / highly responsive tempermaments = thrive in good environment but crash in bad environment
dandelions = less sensitive to the environment
evidence for the above but all childen obviously benefit from positive parenting

99
Q

role of family in emotional development

A

childrens primary environment at first
implicit = quality of relationships and own expressions of emotions
explicit = parents reactions to childs emotions, teaching of emotion display rules
good quality parent-child relationship = sense of secuirty
-effects childs tendencies to express certain emotions

100
Q

secuerly attached

A

open, honest, express emotions

high quality and trusting relationships with their parents = more happiness, less socially anxious and anger

101
Q

parents expressions of emotions

A

influences childs view about themself and others in their social world
model
may affect childs general levels of distress and arousal in social interactions and their ability to process important info about the interactions that would help them moderate their own behaviour

102
Q

still faced study

A

4 m infant
described in lectures
more intense distress in 2nd still faces episode

103
Q

emotion socialization

A

the process through which children aquire the values, standards, skills, knowledge and behaviours that are regarded as appropriate for their present and future role in the particular culture

104
Q

parents reactions to childs emotions

A

influence childs tendencies to express emotions and their social competence and adjustment
supportive parents = socially competent kids
more mother responds contingently to their childs emotions = more child feels validated = better adjusted, better at school etc
supportive parental reactions = especially helpful in reducing problem behaviours for children who have difficulty regulating their physiological responses to challenges

105
Q

cultural comparisons of parents reacting to childs emotions

A

!kung sen = respond within 10 seconds to infants cries =infants cry less than in the west
tamang, nepal = sem calm and clear of emotion. people should not express anger as disruptive effects on interpersonal relationships
=responsive to infants often scold children older than 2yo who show anger - but this doesn’t seem to have a negative effect on social competence (but this style used on us kids does have a negative effect) - different meanings for different cultures

106
Q

emotion coaching

A

parents not only discuss emotions with children but also help them learn ways to cope with their emotions and express them appropriately. kids do better with this type of guidance

107
Q

longitudinal study into emotional discussion

A

degree to which children exposed to and participante in discussions of emotions with family members at 2 and 3yo predict their understanding of others emotions until at least 6yo

108
Q

mothers references to childrens…

A

desires at 15m predicts their childs understanding of emotion and use of emotional language at 24m
same with references to mental states

109
Q

parents ideas of usefullness of specific emotions…

A

vary depending on context in which the family lives = adaptve
consitent with brofrenbrenners bioecological model
cuture = influences which emotions are encouraged and discouraged
parents = responsible for guiding children in social norms
eg chinese parents induce shame in their preschool kids when they transgress = shame showed by the family
in western cultures mothers make children feel better when shamed

110
Q

cultural differnces when teaching about emotions

A

chinese = focus on behaviours than can cause or resolve emotional states whereas western = talk about internal emotional states

111
Q

culture and anger

A

japanese vs american preschool kids
what they would do in hypothetical situation of conflict and distress
america = more anger and aggression
american mothers = more likely to encourage children to express their emotions in situations like this
west = high value on self-assertion and expression of emotions
japan = interdependence, subordinations of onseself to ones group, maintain harmonious relationships

112
Q

mental health

A

children sense of well-being both internally, such as in their emotions and stress levels, as well as externally such as in their relationships with fmaily members and peers
-important component in emotional development
continuum - changes day to day
concern about it at all stages of development
promoted in safe and healthy environments and suportive and nurturing caregivers

113
Q

stress

A

a physiological reaction to some change or threat in the environment
heart rate, bp etc = fight or flight
adrenal cortex secretes steroid hormones (cortisol) = activates energy resources
individual differences in childs basline cortisol level has been related to levels of inhibition, anxiety and social withdrawal and emotion regulation and behaviour problems
can be adaptive motivator
problematic when becomes chronic

114
Q

toxic stress

A

the experience of ovewhelming levels of stress without support from adults to help mitigate the effects of the stress

  • regions of the brain become overloaded (amygdala and hippocampus) = suffer atrophy of neuron dendrites and shrinkage
  • can be permament and lead to long term changes in both response to stress and in stress related chronic disease in adulthood
115
Q

sources of toxic stress in children

A

maltreatment
poverty and material deprivation
war

116
Q

adverse childhood experiences study

A

ACE
17000 adult participants indicated their exposure to various ACEs
64% at least 1
12.5% = 4+
physical abuse = most common
then substance abuse then divorced parents
more ACEs = greater risk of stress, anxiety, depression, severe obesity, smoking and alcoholism
toxic stress in childhood may primes children to experience high levels of stress in adulthood as well
some evidence exposure to non-stressfull environment = can reverse some effects pf toxic stress
public health = prevent circumstances that trigger toxic stress in the first place
community education, recognition of toxic stress

117
Q

traumatic stress

A

a single major event triggers it
eg earthquake, terrorist event
children tend to experience unusually high levels of emotions such as fear and anxiety and tend to experience mood disorders such as depression and PTSD

118
Q

mental disorders

A

a state of having problems with emotional reactions to the environment and with social relationships in ways that affect daily life
repeated trauma in early childhood / traumatic stress
chronic, may persist from childhood to adulthood
difficult to diagnose, often manifest as disruptive or aggressive behaviours

119
Q

equinfinality

A

the concept that various causes can lead to the same mental disorder

120
Q

multifinality

A

the concept that certain risk factors do not always lead to a certain mental disorder

121
Q

depression

A

a mental disorder that involves a sad or irritable mood along with physical and cognitive changes that interfere with daily life
sad or irritable for period of tw weeks + physical and cognitive symptoms (sleeping, concentration, interests)
asolescence = increased risk, girls = 2/3 times more liekly
more cortisol
diff brain structures - prefrontal cortex, amygdala
heritability

122
Q

gender diiference in adolescence depression

A

early + middle childhood = girls more internalizing emotions (sadness, anxiety)
bio changes at puberty = harder for girls
more chronic stress from social interactions
body image
clear risk for depression = early puberty in girsl, potentially due to engaging with older boys earlier, pressure, drinking etc
boys who enter puberty early and move through it quickly = also at risk, decline in quality of relationships?

123
Q

rumination

A

the act of focusing on ones own negative emotions and negative self appraisals and on their causes and consequences without engaging in efforts to improve ones situation
more in girls
particularly more feminine girls
= conforming to gender linked identities?

124
Q

co-rumination

A

extensively discussing and self-disclosing emotional problems with another person
more prevalent in girls

125
Q

nurture factors in depression

A

low levels of parental sensitivity, support or acceptance
high levels of parental negativity
depressed parents = increased likelihood in children
adverse experiences, risk factors, traumatic events

126
Q

cognitive factors in depression

A

unrealistic expectations about social relationships
put themself at fault in negative events
ruminate alot about negative events
precede or consequence of depression?
relationship problems = again cause or consequence
== visicious cycle

127
Q

personal vulnerabiltiy and stress

A

middle school transition, those who felt they had little contorl over their success in school + demonstrated very little investment in school = increased likelihood of showing an increase in depressive symptoms

128
Q

anxiety disorders

A

a set of menta disorders that involve the inability to regulate fear and worry
intense, impairing
over-active amygdala, hippocampus and sympathetic nervous system
overprotective parenting

129
Q

separation anxiety (as abnormal)

A 
normative when young
if severe and persistent = disrder
intrusive, demand constant attention
panic attacks
decrease as get older (also decrease in phobias) but increase in panic and agoraphobia
130
Q

treatment of mental disorders

A

SSRIs in kids
risk of suicidal thinking
CBT = recognise and change maladaptive thoughts - most effective therapy
combination = effective, but many dont receive treatment
non-white, disadvantaged = less likely to receive treatment
shortage in practioniners, but new laws = insurance must have equal converage of mental and physical health

131
Q

friends and the internet

A

easier but cyberbullying risks

132
Q

amanda todd

A

adolescent in british colombia
blackmailed and bullied by a man she met online
circulated revealing photos of her on fb
bullied and shunned by her peers or it, ostracised at school and physically abused for it
aftermath = engaged in risky behaviours (drinking, drugs, cutting herself, sex)
suicide attmept prevented by family
peers continued to bully
moved school, photos followed
posted a youtube video describing what she had been through
killed herself

133
Q

peers

A

people of aprrox the same age and status who are unrelated to one another

134
Q

peer relationships

views of piaget and vygotsky

A

special opportunity for childs dev
piaget = because children are relatiely equal in social status = tend to be more open and spontaneous when expressing their ideas and beliefs wit peers than with adults
vygotsky = children learn new skills and develop their cognitive capactities in peer interactions; he emphasised the ways in which childrens working together helps to build new skills and abilities as well as convey the knowledge and skills valued by the culture

135
Q

who tends to have a friend

A

most children at every stage of development accross all cultures = at least one same-sex peer who they consider a friend
-like to spend time together and feel affectionate for one another
interactions are characterised by reciprocities = friends have mutual regard for one another, give and take behaviour and benfit in comparable ways from their social exchanges

136
Q

define friend

A

a person with whom an individual has an intimate, reciprocal, positive relationship

137
Q

childrens choice of friends

A

tend to be friends with peers who are social and act prosocially towards others
similarity of interests + behaviours also important (cognitive maturity in play, levels of cooperations, antisocial behaviours, acceptance by peers, shyness)
more similar than non-friends in academic motivations, self-perception of competence
share similar levels of negative emotions and similar in their tendencies to attribute hostile intentions to others
proximity
similar activities
similar age (most industrialised countires, diff cultures = less age based)
gender

138
Q

gender and friendships

A

cross-gendered freidnships (not uncommon) = more fragile

liking of other gender peers increases over the course of childhood (8-11 grade)

139
Q

ethnicity and friendships

A

less marked than gender
tendency to be friends with own racial / ethnic group
youths who maintain cross-racial friendships = tend to be leaders and relatively inclusive in their social relationships + socially competent + high in self-esteem
but costs = lower emotional well-being, cannot support each other as easily

140
Q

culture and peers experience

A

china = children who are unsociable tend to have adjustment problems
collectivist culture norms
boasting in us = normal, in china = emphasises their interest in helping peers improve
cultural importance of friends vs fmaily (latino = family > peers)
cultural differences in freedom given to children eg unschooled, unindustrial societies boys lots of freedom, girls relatively little
differences in relational and physical aggression in friendships (but regardless of culture, boys more physcially aggressive than girls)

141
Q

longitudinal study looking at friendships

A

despite differences in culture, children followed a remarkably similar pattern of development in the complexity of their friendship descriptions across childhood = universal development

142
Q

12-18m and friendships

A

display a preference for some children over others (touching, smiling, engaging in positive interactions)

143
Q

24m and friendships

A

have began to develop skills that allow greater complexity in their social interactions including imitating peers social behaviours, engaging in cooperational problem solving, trading roles during play

144
Q

3/4yo and friendships

A

make and maintain friendships with peers
can identify “best friend”
cooperation and coodination in childrens interactions continues to increase sibstantially from toddler to preschool

145
Q

pretend play

A

occurs more often amony friends - experiences with one another, trust their partners + work to interpret and share meaning of symbolic actions

146
Q

friends….. (arguing)

A

quarrel more and will express more hostility to one another
greater amount of time spent together
more likely to resolve conflict in direct ways whereas nonfriends avoid
friends also more likely to resolve conflict on equal outcomes rather than a winning and a losing friend
so more likely to restore their interactions and have positive feelings for one another

147
Q

5yo and friendship

A

muture enough to take responsibility for conflict and to give reasons for their disagreements, increasing the likelihood of their maintaining their friendship
level and importance of initmacy changes

148
Q

6-8yo and friendships

A

defined primarily on basis of actual activities with their peers and tend to define best friends as peers with whom they play all the time and share everything
also view friends in terms of rewards and costs
instrumental concrete views

149
Q

early school years to adolsecence and friendships

A

increasingly define their friendships as characteristics such as similairty in attitudes/ interests, acceptance, trust, mutual admiration and loyaty

150
Q

9yo and friendships

A

more sensitive to the needs of others and inequalities among people

151
Q

adolescence frienships

A

context for self-exploration and working out personal problems
increasingly important source of intimacy and disclosure with age
cource of honest feedback
-more exclusive in adolescence
-better quality, more highly valued
-less stable than middle school

152
Q

why does friendship change with age

A

selman = changes in childrens reasoning about friendhsips = consequences of age related qualitative changes in their ability to take others perspectives
young children = limited awareness that others may feel or think differently so friendships = not far off own needs met
as children begin to realise that friendships involve consideration of both parties needs so relationship = mutually satisfying

153
Q

tech and friendships

A

12-17yo texting = most common way to communicate with friends (phone calls and social media = slightly less popular)
gender diffences = boys game

154
Q

how electronic communication facilitates the creation and maintanence of friendships among children

A 
greater anonymity = less social inhbition
less emphasis on physical apperance
more control over interactions
finding similar ppers
24/7 access
fun
155
Q

rich get richer hypothesis

A

those already with good social skills benefit from internet

156
Q

social-compensation hypothesis

A

may be especially beneficial for lonely, depresed and socially anxious adolesence = can take time thinking about what they are going to manage, more likely to make personal disclosures = form new friendships

157
Q

evidence supporting richer-get richer hypothesis

A

adolesence who are not socially anxious or lonely use the internet for communication more often than adolesence who are anxious and lonely
youths who are better adjusted at ages 13-14 were found to use social networking more at ages 20-22 and exhibit similarity in online and oflfine socil competence
in contrast with youths who are shy and withdrawn = inappropriately vent anger online
so socially competent benefit and incompetent dont

158
Q

evidence for social compensation hypothesis

A

lonely and socially anxious prefer online communication
high levels of depressive symptoms = use online to make friends and communicate their feelings = associated with less depression
so may provide depressed or those with lower quality friendships a method of communicating and pbtaining emotional intimacy with peers

159
Q

internet and existing friends

A

strengthens
but is internet primarily used for entertainment or communicating with strangers = can harm the quality of friendships and predicts increases in anxiety and depression

160
Q

cyberbullying

A

on the rise
rumour spreading = most common form
girls and LGBTQ+ = most at risk
more common in classrooms where students are accepting of bullying
bully / victim = same as in real life but many cybervictims are also perpertrators = perhaps retaliation
all based on correlational research
perpertrators may benefit socially from their behaviour
cyberbullying behaviour significantly correlated with physical bullying behaviour

161
Q

school based interventions to help prevent cyberbulllying

A

no trap - peer educators to raise awareness
correct beliefs cyberbullying = normal
media heroes = increase emphathy for victims
cyber friendly schools = appropriate and inappropriate “netiquette”

162
Q

friendships impact on psych functioning and behaviour

A

emotional support and validation and opportunities for development
less lonely

163
Q

chronic no friends =

A

more likely to develop symptoms of depression and social withdrawal

164
Q

friendships in transitions

A

important
young children have a more positive attitude toward school if they begin school with a large number of established friends as classmates = environment less strange
buffer against unpleasant experiences - especially true if friends = intimacy, secuirty and help when needed

165
Q

study on friends and unpleasant situations

A

when a best friend was not present, the more negative children’s everyday experiences wer and greater incidence in their cortisol levels and greater decline in their sense of self worth
but if best friend present = less change in cortisol response and childs self-worth
degree to which friendship provides care and support increases from childhood to adolesence eg in 16 yo girsl more important than parents

166
Q

development of social and cognitive skills in the context of friends

A

is the context for development of skills and knowledge to form positive relationships with others
eg positive behaviours = more common among friends
young children who discuss emotions with their friends = better understanding of others mental and emotional states

167
Q

role of gossip

A

learn about norms

friends more likely to criticise and expand on one anothers ideas and to elaborate and clarify their own ideas

168
Q

study on teams of friends compares to nonfriends

A

more constructive conversations among friends and more focused on task
stories better written, higher quality

169
Q

longitudinal study on children and best friends

A

children who had bes friends were viewed by their classmates as more mature, less aggressive and more socially prominent
13 year later = those who had best friends = greater success in college, family and social lives. higher levels of self-esteem, fewer legal problems and less psychopathology

170
Q

possible costs of friendships

A

elementary school = children with antisocial and aggressive friends = exhibit antisocial, delinquent and aggressive behaviours themselves
but merely correlational data…

171
Q

deviancy training

A

youths who are antisocial may both model and reinforce aggression and deviance in one another by making these behaviours seem acceptable
found as early as age 5 = predicts antisocial and delinquent behaviour into adolescents

172
Q

longitudinal study on how friends change delinquent and aggresive behaviour

A

early adolesents both affected an were affected by their peers
16-20yo antisocia behaviour reinforced only by socialiazation with friends
+20yo little evidence of either process

173
Q

alcohol and substance abuse and friends

A

same story as with aggression and same correlational problems
genetic: youths with similar genetic caused tempermaments (eg risk taking) = drawn together
parents who are authoritative (high in control an warmth) = can protect teenager but parents who are authoritarian (high in control, low in warmth) = teenager more susceptible to alcohol and substance abuse

174
Q

gender differences in friendships

A

girls = desire closeness and dependency and worry about abandonment, loneliness and hurting other peoples feelings, peer evaluations and loss of relationships if they experience anger
girls get more upset if betrayed
-more friendship related stress
-more fragile friendships and shorter duration
-more likely to co ruminate

175
Q

average gender differences

A

genetic sex differences in brain structures and hormone effects

176
Q

sex

A

genetic females (XX) vs genetic males (XY)

177
Q

gender

A

social assignment or self-categorization as female or male, possibly neither / different category)

178
Q

gender-typed behaviours

A

stereotyped or expected for a given persons gender

179
Q

cross-gender-typed behaviours

A

stereotypes or expected for the gender other than that of a given person

180
Q

gender typing

A

the process of gender socialization

181
Q

theoretical approaches to gender development

A

bio - sex hormones, brain structure
cognitive - motivational, learning gender-typed roles (observation and practice)
cultural factors - status of men and women

182
Q

evolutionary psychology theory

A

certain behavioural tendencies occur because they helped humans survive during the course of evolution
some suggest particular gender differences in behaviours reflect evolved personality dispositions. argue sex-linked dispositions evolved to increase the chances men and women will successfully mate and protect their offspring

183
Q

studies of childs play behaviour

A

show average gender differences = interpreted as distinct with evolutionary perspective
eg boys play fighting = evolutionary tendency to practice the competencies that were associated with male-male competition during human evolution
=reproductive advantage
girls = devoted to establishing and maintaining positive social relationships, play parenting, nurture and other affiliative behaviour

184
Q

controversies of evolutionary psychology theory

A

circular argument
can be constructed as a rationalism for maintaining the status quo in traditional gender roles = bio contraints of gender development

185
Q

bisocial theory of gender development

A

observeable differences between the sexes
differences = behavioural +social consequences
capacity for behavioural flexibility as one adaption to eviornmental variability
1 mens greater average size and foot speed = hunting and increased social status
2 womens child bearing and nursing capacities, limited mobility and involvement in economic subsidance
but bio does not equal destiny

186
Q

how bio does not equal destiny in gender

A

today tech industries = strength unimportant, accordingly gender equality has increased (but not equal)
also reproductive control = can manage / stay in abour force
both physcial sex differences and social ecology shape the different gender roles assigned to men and women and socialization of boys and girls

187
Q

criticisms of biosocial

A

body and mind evolved together

only adresses bodys impact on gender development

188
Q

both theories of gender development

A

importance of evolution and the physical differences between women and men
bust evolutionary psych increased role of sex differences in eolved genetic traits

189
Q

neuroscience approach to gender development

A

bio sex = xx or xy
rodents = evidence for direct genetic influences on gender-typed behaviour
eg mice study - genes in y chromosome and later levels of some aspect of aggressive and parenting behaviours
no evidence in humans, only indirect evidence of possible genetic effectes mediated by the production of hormones

190
Q

define andrgoens

A 
class of sterois hormones that normally iccur at higher levels in males than in females and that affect physical development and functioning from the prenatal period onwards
production = male genetelia, have organisation and activating influences on the nervous system
191
Q

organizing influences

A

potential result of certain sex-linked hormones affecting brain differentiationg and organization during prenantal development or at puberty

192
Q

activating influences

A

potential result of certain fluctuations in sex-linked hormone levels affecting the contemporaneous activation of the nervous system and corresponding behavioural responses

193
Q

box 15.1 gender identity - more than socialization

A

normally consistent with observeable gentelia and gender socialization
worng body view in kids thought to be established as impervious to parental attempts to socialize child as a member of what the child thinks is the wrong sex
prefer cross gendered play, clothing, activities
dislike gender typed activities
usually appears early in development
occurs mostly in boys
difficult to alter even with parental socialization
suggests bio component of gender identity
so should it be a psych dis in children

194
Q

gender dysphoria

A

psychiatric diagnosis included in the DSM5 to refer to children who experience distress because they do not identify with gender assigned to them at birth
reflects societal expectancies for gender-role conformity rather than an inherent disorder
some argue for a broader notion of gender

195
Q

transgender

A

individuals who do not identify with then gender assigned at birth (their bio sex)
may prefer other,both or neither gender

196
Q

cisgender

A

individuals who identify with their gender assigned at birth (or their bio sex)

197
Q

gender roles

A

more flexible in many ciltires and increasing tolerance and acceptance of transgender kids
but still many rejected and vistimized = suicide risk

198
Q

intersex conditions

A

received genes that cause (rare) one person to develop genital characterstics typical of the other genetic sex

199
Q

congential adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)

A

condition during prenatal development in which the adrenal glands produce high levels of androgens; sometimes associated with masculinization of external genitelia in genetic females and sometimes associated with higher rates of masculine-sterotypes play in genetic females
influences on androgens on development
CAH = more liekly boysih / rough and tumble play

200
Q

androgen insensitivity syndrom (AIS)

A

condition during prenantal development in which androgen receptors malfunction in genetic males, impeding the formation of males external genetelia; in these cases, the child may be born with female external genetelia
common self-identify as girls and generally show preference for feminine stereotyped behaviours

201
Q

what do we use CAH and AIS for

A

evidence to support premise that prenatal androgens may partly contribute to boys and girls gender identities and to gender typed play preferences
also used to support evolutionary theories of gender development

202
Q

sex differences in brain structure and functioning

A

small differences in physical structures
no clear advantages
unclear if differences due to genetic or environmental influence
also unclear if these differences lead to differences in ability or behaviour

203
Q

cognitive and motivational influences on gender

A

children learn gender typed behaviours through observation, inference and practice = form expectations

204
Q

self socialization

A

active process during development whereby childrens cognitions lead them to perceive the world and to act in accord with their expectations and beliefs
cognitie theories stress childrens active self-socialization
individuals use their beliefs, expectations and preferences to guide how they perceive the world and the activities they chose

205
Q

kohlberg’s cognitive development theory

A

gender-role development, reflects piagetian framework
children actively construct knowledge about gender in the same ways that piaget theorized children construct knowledge about physical world
1 children actively seek to understand the meaning of gender through observing and interacting with the world around them
2 cognitive developmental changes in childrens understanding of gender during early childhood, kohlberg = 3 stage process between 2-6yo

206
Q

kohlberg’s 3 stage process

A

30 months = gender identitiy, self-identify as boy or girl but do not reliase gender is permament
3-4yo = gender stability, awareness gender remains the same over time. however still not clear that gender is independent of superficial appearance and they believe that a boy who puts a dress on and looks like a girl is now a girl
here begin to attedn to same gender models and learn how to behave
6yo = gender constancy, realization gender is invariant despite superficial changes in a persons appearance or behaviour
note this last stage = same age children begin to suceed at piagetian conservation problems = same underlying thinking patterns

207
Q

gender schema theory

A

the motivation to enact gender typed behaviours begins as soon as children label other peoples and their own genders (3yo)

208
Q

define gender schema

A

organized mutual representations about gender, including gender sterotypes
own memories and sterotypes trasmitted directly by adults and peers and media
ingroup and outgroup gender schema
simply learning an unfmailiar object = for my gender = children more likely to like it
responsible for biased processing and remembering information about gender

209
Q

study children and ungender toys

A

more likely to explore boxes labelled for thei gender than other gender (all toys were unfamiliar and gender neutral)
a week later remembered more details about the objects they had explored

210
Q

how children can infer gender appropriate behaviour

A

look to their parents

study - boy were influenced by the number of same-gender children who were playing with a set of toys

211
Q

gender schema and biased processing

A

children remember more about what thet observe from same gender role models than from cross gendered ones
more likely to accurately encode and remember info about story characters that behave in gender consistent ways and to forget / distort info that is gender inconsistent
eg pictures of girls baking cookies and girl sawing wood = later asked to recall images and mistakenly gender types them
so we maintain info that is schema consistent and ignore / distort infor that isnt

212
Q

2 types of filter when eoncountering new toys

A

gender schema - initial evaluation of info as relevant to ones own gender, resistant to change by can be modified by explicit instruction
interest filter - initial evaluation of info as being interesting
interest filter can just = fun and attractive, then modified by gender schema. allows for the fact children sometime persue cross-gender typed activites simply because they enjoy them

213
Q

cognitive gener intervention program

A

elementary school kids learned a persons interests and abilities = important for kind of job (and not gender)
week long = decreased gender sterotyping and btter memory for gender inconsistent stimuli
but impact typically fades once intervention done = need to be sustained to have a longer lasting effect

214
Q

social identity theory

A

tajifel and turner
group membership on peoples self concept and behaviour with other
developmental psych applied to childs socialization and highlighta the importance of gender as a social identitiy in childs development

215
Q

ingroup bias

A

tendency to evaluate individuals and characteristics of the ingroup as superior to those of the outgroup

216
Q

ingroup assimilation

A

process whereby individuals are socialized to conform to the groups norms, demonstrating the characteristics that define the ingroup
=children tend to become more gender typed in their preferences as they assimilate into their same-gender peer groups

217
Q

intersectionality

A

the interconnection of social identities such as gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation and dress especially in relation to overlapping experiences of discrimination

218
Q

social congnitive theory

A

bussy and bandura
triadic model of reciprocal causations
-personal factors
-environmental factors
-behaviour patterns
key factors = sociocognitive models of influence, observational learning procedures and self-regulatory processes
4 key learning processses - attention, memory, production and motivation
children monitor behaviour and decide how well it matches personal standards. evaluation. pride or shame depending on how it meets their personal statements

219
Q

by social cognitive theory learn occurs through

A

tuition - learning through direct teaching
enactive experience - learning to take into account the reactions and past behaviour has evolved in others
observational learnin - learning through watching other people and the consequences others experience as as result of their actions

220
Q

self-efficacy

A

develops gradually through practice
through social modelling
social persuation
researchers consistently find strong relation between feelings of self-efficacy and motiavtion

221
Q

bioecological model ad gender

A

interconnected systems with the child and childs environment
-microsystem (immediate)
-macrosystem (culture)
-chronosystem (changes over course of dev)
=systems interact to influence childs dev

222
Q

opportunity structure

A

the economic and social response offered by the macrosystem in the bioecological model and peoples understanding of these resources
so gender typing practices perpetuate as well as reflect the existing opportunity structure in a particular community in a particular time in history`

223
Q

box 15.2 where are spongesally square pants and curious jane

A

gender representation of tv and movie characters
changed little over past 4 decades
cartoons are slightly better
not just number but also sterotypes reinforced
6 hours a day = average for kids
so major source of info, so matters
eg children who watch a lot of tv = more highly sterotypical beliefs and preferences gender-typed activities
causal study = children randomly assigned to gender sterotypes or neutral cartoon = more likely to endorse gender sterotypes themselves after watching gender sterotyped programs
books and computers = same story
odd exception eg hunger games and katniss

PSYC 101 - developmental (5 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions