Lecture points midterm 2 Flashcards
what did Piaget believe about child development
rejected nature vs nurture debate
constructivsm
knowledge begins with active interaction, starts from the self - motor activity important
we develop a mental picture of the world
constructivism
build mental maps of the world
sponge metaphor and piaget
children like sponges soaking up info
worng according to piaget - all about integrating new info into the old
explain the world is round example
we create representations of the world connected to out previous knowledge
so teaching earth is round children tend to draw pictures of a circle with people at the bottom and clouds at the top or person stood on a flat pancake
vagueness and confusion over word round
so integrate with what they know / see around them every day
explain driver passenger example
driver has a better mental map of the surroundings than passenger
active construction
why is teahcing difficult
the curse of knowledge
we assume everyone knows what we know
whar are schemas
frameworks for interpreting and responding to experience
can be mental or physical
as we get older we get more abstract schemas (also more mental than physical0
software analogy - what we do with info inputs
example of baby with a book schemas
when young - put in mouth to explore
when older try to read and think
cognitive development and schemas
cognitive development takes place as we try to connect experiences and schemas
what is assimilation
fit observations into existing schema
what is accomodation
change schemas to fit observations
dad points to photo and says that is you to a young child
assimilation view point?
accomodation viewpoint?
(also trusted friend cheating example)
accomodation = develop ways to think about pictures. friend never trustworthy assimilation = parent is joking, this (physical me) is me. friend was protecting me or some rubbish
belief intrenchment in politics is an example of
assimilation
making an exception is probably an exmaple of
schema change
name piaget 4 stages of development
sensorimotor
preoperational
concrete operations
formal operations
age of sensorimotor
0-2
age of preoperational
2-7
age of concrete operations
7-12
age of formal operations
12+
overview of sensorimotor stage
knowledge based on motor and senses
baby limited to immediate sensory experiences
sensorimotor experience fosters cognitive development
sensorimotor tables at some preschools eg sand and water play
name the sensorimotor substages
reflex activities
primary circular reactions
secondary circular reactions
coordination of secondary circualr reactions
tertiary circular reactions
cognitive advancements (overlaps into preoperational stage)
reflex activity
- when
- what
0-1 month baby has reflex schema -looking, sucking, hearing grasping -process info -slowly modified by infant so reflexes where you take things in from the world, not simple babinski
primary circular reactions
- when
- what
1-4 months
pleasureable response to own body
loop of doing something over and over because you like it
eg sucking fingers and toes, blowing spit bubbles
class video - baby sucking top lip to make a squeaking sound
seconday circular reactions
- when
- what
pleasurable response centered around objects and events in th external world
eg rattles
coordination of secondary ciruclar reactions
- when
- what
8-12 months combines previously aquired schrmas to reach goal (means end behaviour) eg will lift cover to find toy Piaget thinks this shows object permanence bye bye wave pulls cloth towards self to reach imitates action similar to schema a not b error
piaget and object permanence
pre 8 months babt wont reach for an object they can’t see
piaget said this was due to object permanence - baby thinks things only exist when they can see it
video demonstrating object permanence
7 month old fails
toy played with
then put under cover
baby doesn’t look or doesn’t know where it is
-motor skills not advanced?
-adult took it off so why would baby look?
-cannot be bothere?
not necessatily lack of object permanence
the 9 month old
will lift blanket when toy put under it
A not B error - class video
baby reluctant to give toy back to experimenter
hidden twice on right side
then hidden left
baby goes to the right to find toy
Piaget said because a not b error
or pattern fomring, operant conditioning, habit of the baby
tertiary circular reactions
- when
- what
12-18 months
active experimentation
no a not b error
variations on a theme - not same repetitive behvaiour over and over again
little experimenter stage
eg kid eating will throw things on the floor to see what happens
also learn social aspects of their behaviour - eg what will mum vs dad do if i drop this
cognitive exploration
can be very annoying!
cognitive advancement
- when
- what
seen at end of sensorimotor stage or preoperational stage (18+ months)
child not limited to immediate experience
-delayed imitation
-visual imagery in problem solving
-symbolic play
what was one of piaget’s methods (wouldn’t fly today)
studied own children
piaget child example of delayed imitation
piaget’s child throws fake tantrum after watching another kid throw one the day before
had remembered what had happened and re-created it herself
example of using visual imagery in problem solving
door open
flower pot in way of door closing so must move vase to be able to shut door
piaget’s daughter knew to move vase before closing the door as could imagine what would happen
didn’t have to physically try to find out
what are the lmiitations of preoperational thought
centration - the child can only focus on one aspect of a problem or object eg class inclusion
are there more blue flowers or flowers
also fail conservation tasks
explain conservation tasks and examples from class
number, mass and volume
video = liquid
coins on a tabl - girl even counts first time but for some reason doesn’t second time and gets tricked
graham cracker - one for you, two for me… but if i just split yours in half = now we have the same
what can make conservation tasks hard
child often won’t agree the start point is equal - eg have to negotiate two pieces of playdough are the same size
also repeatedly asking them which is bigger = problematic as measn one must be bigger
piaget thought all conservation tasks were..
equal
not true
tend to better in number tasks earlier
in industry today use conservation of volume to trick shoppers
what is aminism and what stage is it associated
child attributes animate properties to inanimate objects
another preoperational problem
eg piaget chat of why does the sun move - is because it is alive and following us
or is child teeling an imaginary story to us? also remember we draw the sun with a face = not particularly helpful
also leading questions
piaget claimed just because child = illogical at this point
explain thematic categorization and how kids get it wrong
load of shapes
asked to group them
kids in preoperational stage will make a pretty picture with them
egocentrism in preoperational stage
fail to take another’s perspective into account
eg will cover own eyes during hide and seek
3 mountain task - what can the doll see sat on the other side
according to piaget - egocentrism is purely cognitive
concrete operations stage
- when
- what
7-12 yo understand reversible logic systems -not fooled by superficial appearance -can think about multiple dimensions logical categorization now - taxomic groupings so no more pretty pictures with shapes
formal operations stage
- when
- what
12+
reason about abstract ideas
can reason hypothetically and systematically
-pendulum problem (eg only length of string in a swinging pendulum matters)
logic games - become mini scientists and change one variable at a timeto figure out cause
can understand abstract maths
abstract maths debate
when should we start getting kids to do abstract maths
only when ready or earlier so they gte used to seeing it
class video - what if someone had no thumbs
kids of various ages what if we had no thumbs
little kids = very phyiscal / simple answers = couldn’t do a thumbs up
vs older kids = globalised reasoning as can actualy imagine this situation
maybe why adolescents love sci-fi
key conclusions from piaget
children actively construct knowledge
- importance of active discovery
- importance of engaging in meaningful activities
- child is not a vessel to be filled with facts
major headline as to what piaget got wrong
understimated childs abliities
tasks were too hard for what they were trying to show!
video = test of object permanence younger kids pass
2 possibilities - swing door hits box so comes back earlier or impossible/ magical event box gets squashed as door swings all the way through it
4 month old babies look longer at the impossible event
how do we use looking times
we look longer at stuff that is surprising
so from surprise we can infer expectation
but must control conditions carefully
object permanence variation babies pass (object searching one)
babies look for objects when put in darkness over simple put a cover over it
how to disrupt a not b error
put a weight on babies wrist
this disrupts the habit and more likely to look in the right place as is taken off autopilot
underestimation of perspective taking abilities in young children
even 24 month olds have some perspective taking abilities
adults enter room looking for an object
children saw two toys, but only one of which they could see
by 24 months they give the experimenter the object the experimenter cannot see (but the baby can)
or hold squirrel teddy so everyone else can see
the development of perspective taking is…
longer than piaget thought
older childern and adults still have difficulties
eg give too little info (blue star - when there are two, a big one and a little one)
or give too much information (a big red star when there is only one red star)
curse of knowledge
onve we know something it seems onvious and we often assume others know it too
part of eprspective
eg blurry images - we know outcome but always overestimate when people will recognise final image of fish - say they should know by pcture x which is far too blurry but we forget we know the final outcome
brief other challenges to piaget
underestimate variability in skills - is a stage theory
underestimate influence of social environment and culture
underestimate role of domain specific skills - eg cateogrization by child experts is way beyond adults but only in their specific areas of expertise (eg dinosaur expert)
piaget didn’t care much for language
sociocultural theory
- who
- what
lev Vygotsky focus on social environment quantitive change language shapes thought inner speech tool for solving problems and regulating behaviour
what does vygotsky mean by social environment
child is a product of culture
learning is a social process
example of inner speech
mum bake cake and leaves room
girl (2.5yo) says “no i musn’t break the eggs” as breaks them
children learn best by sociocultural in…..
zone of proximal development
cannot be too easy ot too hard
what is intersubjectivity
mutual understanding shared in communication
achieved through joint attention
infants and partners focus on common thing
so parent must make sure child is looking at what they are describing to avoid confusion (both parent and child must be looking at the same thing!)
tomasello quote meaning
this allows for…
where we differ from animals = the ability to participate with others in collaborative activities with shared goals and intentions = shared intentionality allows for use of lingustic symbols -creation of social norms
what is social scaffolding
social support that helps children so more than on their own
autobiography social scaffolding
helps children narrate what happened to them - eg ask questions to help them remember what happened. they practice telling what happened and aim is they then can tell it without the scaffolding questions
eg falling down at the pool, did it hurt etc
helping children solve problems by social scaffolding example
block towers keep faling down
teahc scientific method
can also teach much broader coping strategies like uh oh lets try again - how to cope with failure
so scaffold ability to regulate own emotion
helping children do daily tasks scaffolding example
lay table and tidy bedroom
build it up slowly
couting practice - just because 4 forks needed have to remind children same number of spoons etc - this takes scaffolding and practice
again chance to scaffold much wider skills
or break bedroom down into pieces eg clothes first etc
what does executive control allow for
goal-directed action
regulation and control over cognitive processes
involves mental flexibility
eg trying to get stuff done in social situations - allow for friends etc
mental flexibility - switch to task of higher priority then back to other task
video of executive control
3 yo jonathan
boats to one pile, rabbits to another
then rule change red to one pile, blue to another. cannot adapt to new rule
now libby - did colour game first and all good, then couldnt switch to shape game
can both restate new rule but cannot act on it
for executive control we need
inhibitory control - control behaviour and emotion, resist temptation
working memory - holding info in mind and work with it
cognitive flexibility - change perspective or how you think about a problem
how to make kids pass the card sorting task
drop all the cards on the floor then introduce new rule - seems to allow for rule reset
card sorting task in adults
stroop task
wisconsin card sorting task - have to work out rules yourself
peeking in children
age 3 start to realise we don’t all know what they see
= first start lying, particularly to get out of trouble
game - toy making noise on table behind them and have to guess what is the toy
obscure noise, adult leaves the room instructing don’t peek
basically everyone peeks in about 15 seconds
when asked if peeked say no
lying about peeking
requires inhibitory control after to keep story straight and not give away the fact they lied
most little kids will give away the fact they lied on further questioning
2 ways to become a good liar
high level of cognitive sophistication
be in trouble alot so get alot of practice at it
how to reduce / increase peeking in toy game
make them promise to not peek = less peaking
appeal to their reputation… if you say they are really smart = more peeking but if tell them they are known for being good = less peeking
executive control predicts
academic performance
mental and physical health
gains seen by extensive practice of skill beyond your current ability
some kinds of practice may especially well eg martial arts
learning limitations
apply to both adults and kids
intuitions about effective strategies often wrong (eg highlighting!)
illusion of explanatory depth - people tend to overestimate how well they understand things
- they will then lower their estimates after explaining to others
learning strategies that work (both adults and children remember)
explainging answers (more effective than just receiving test material, promotes integration with prior belief)
practice quizzing inc flashcards = deeper processing + better than “creative techniques”
spacing of material
space out practice, intermix problem types, cumulative review
productive struggle
example of creative spelling and did it work
could write out words in different colours
nope testing better
and children perffered testing to “fun creative one”
productive struggle explain
better to struggle by yourself at somehting new then be shown right way than simply shown right way = means you actively process
even with good study strategies….
we forget most of the details we learn
-is this that problematic
no as means we can re-learn better, understand big concepts better and detect experts better from fakers
even when children given really complicated narrative on how engines work…
they don’t learn it or remember it but can understand core ideas and are successful on engine expert detector test
infantile amnesia problem
we do not remeber memories from before 3.5 yo = infantile amnesia
but we do learn stuff at this age just don’t seem to remeber it
instrumetnal conditioning foot kicks
can be taught to kick foot to make modile swing
results
-even 2 month old can remeber for 24 hours
6 months for 2 weeks
but context = very important for memory retrieval, if add bumber pads to cot won’t remeber as different looking environment
other research showing memory before 3 yo
autobiographical events 6 months earlier scripted events -bathtime -restuarants may not remeber speciic events years later due to limits in networks and social scaffolding
early memories being changed
false memories develop with repeated questions
asked whether bitten by a rat
answer no
asked every week
by the end would say yes and have entire stories
we think they genuinely believed they had been bitten
so why do we ask leading questions?!?!
classic studies in when do children realise appearances can be deceiving`
banana pen, rock looking sponge -what does this look like -what is this really and truly 3yo answer same to both likely refelcts confusion about what is real
an example of children confusing what is real and potential reason why
real fear of people who are dressed up eg clown
trouble thinking about the same thing in two different ways at the same time
how can you get kids to understand banana looking pen is a banana looking pen
when presented banana and banana at the same time
asked to give experiment the real banana versus te one that looks like a banana
tend to get this right
contaminated foods and children
vegemite on moldy bread roach in drink then out appearance = good to eat but not really 3 yo know it isnt ok to eat maybe evolutionary?
what are symbolic systems and some examples and why are they challenging to children
one thing stands for another -printed words -maps -models -calendars have to see artifact as both things and what they represent
what are scale errors
seeing difference between artifacts and what theyr epresent
eg kid try to get in toy bed or toy car (video little boy kept saying in and little girl took her shoe off to try and fit)
scale model experiment
big room and scale model of room
toy hidden in one room, go find in another, under 3yo fail to realize they are scale models so will be hidden in the same place (under the pillow in snoopy the dog video) despite repreatedly being told the two rooms were the “same”
instead done with magical we can shrink the room = now pass as think of it as the same room and not a representation of the room
explain the dual representation hypothesis
2yo have trouble seeing both an artifact and a symbol as something else
up to what age can you convince kids there is a machine for everything
7 yo
symbolic understanding in pretend play development
first seen 12-24 month
peaks around 6 months
if not seen = potential developmental problem in child
promotes conceptual development (practicing and experimenting with prior learning)
what is the debate over time spent in preschool
how much pretend play time at te expense of hard fact learning time
experts = let them play as allows interest in learning and the other stuff will come
Dr Heyman story about children after hearing stroke story
heard story about grandfather getting a stroke
son declared he had one next day, and was old etc
daughter adminstered a shot to fix it
pretend play to understand what they had heard about for the first time
integrated into what they knew - shot is what doctors give kids when they are ill
how can pretend play help with
emotion
doll is scared of the dark
practice talking to the doll the dark isnt scary
self soothes own fear of the dark
how can pretend play help with social roles
have to coordinate with others, might have to have and resolve arguments
eg playing house
boy always made to be dad, wanted to be a housebat, had to persuade others a house bat was necessary over a dad to the game
kids imitate actions when they are
on purpose
seem fun or useful
imitation often serves as a way to connect with others
3 parts of mental life we have to understand
beliefs
emotions
desires
video of understanding beliefs / preferences over food
experimenter has clear preference for broccoli over crackers (kids prefer cracker in pretest, one who preffered broccoli switched roles for)
experimenter asks child (under 18months) to give her food. kid gives own food preference (cracker) over her preference (broccoli)
attributed own belief to experimenter
by 18months/2yo = works it out
ToM is special as it holds for ….. subjects
all cultures
not just WEIRD
sally anne doll task
what ages do what
example of what kind of test
3 yo (42 month) fail 5 yo (52 month) pass false belief task - unexpected transfer
deceiving contents task
what ages
video example used what
example of what kind of test
same ages as sally anne
video = crayon box with animal crackers
false belief
how to make children successful at false belief tasks
child helps to deceive another
maybe act of tricking another = social scaffolding
phonology
how sounds are used in lnaguage
phoneme
elementary unit of meaningful sound
each language has about 30
in phonology children must not only learn phonemes but also…
how to reproduce sounds
which sound combinations are allowed in their language
eg ts sound not allowed at beginning of english words
morphology
study of form and structure of words
morpheme
smallest unit of language that has meaning
has one or more phoneme
includes prefixes, suffixes and root words
free morphemes
stand alone
eg car, tree
bound morphemes
cannot satnd alone serve many functions -change meaning eg un in unclear -change part of speech eg ness in happiness -indicate tense eg ed in hopped -indicate plural eg s in cars
semantics
study of meaning in words and sentences
semantically illegal sentences cna have fine grammar
can be linked to humour - around 8 yo love this
can change contexrt eg bank
syntax
the structure of sentences
how words are arranged to form sentences
in english SVO = standard
words in different orders can have different meanings
2 syntax rules
subjects and verbs must agree
pronouns must match up with what they refer to
pragmatics
rules for language in social contexts
- what is intentionally communicates
- rules for socially appropriate language use
- speaker must get attention of listener
- what specific language is appropriate
speech act
eg can you reach that - not really asking that quesiton, really asking you to reach that for them
also arguments in couples - house is really dirty is an invitation to clean and not to simply agree it is dirty
what parts of language are really difficult for AI
assessing meaning from context eg bank vs bank
pragmatics
what part of language is important in dev psych research
pragmatics
why is researcher asking me the same quesiton over and over again etc
some rules kids apply when learning the referent for each word
assume word is for whole not part of an object
multiple exposure does better - see what is common
syntactic bootstrapping - a bird = know from grammar a means its a noun we are trying to work out
pragmatic cues - what is the speaker attending to
principle of mutual exclusivity - i know the word for that so this new word must be for that new object i don’t know the word for
what can make language learning hard for kids
even when we get the basic ideas it can be hard to pin down the mechanisms
eg with adjectives - the big bug is still smaller than the small car
bunny drumming study in lecture
was the hindi language one from the textbook
ba vs da (we can all hear this in english) - to signal phoneme change bunny would drum = child conditioned to always look to the bunny when heard the change
then da vs da (diff in hindi but not english) 6 months would look to the bunny as heard the difference, at 10 months english speaking babies no longer heard the difference so did not look at the bunny
at 6 months = universal listener
can phoneme perception be reversed video study
9 month old US kid exposed to native mandarin chinese speaker and same speaker on tv and audio
learnt phoneme distinction for real person
lack of learning from tv = part of more general video deficit
how to fix the video deficit
joint attention
make TV more interactive eg like blues clues where presenter asks kids questions and 3 yo will reply to the questions as if was live
explain the featured article
empirical, 24-30 month olds
exposed to 4 novel verbs
-live interaction (contingent)
-noncontingent video
-video chat = contingent
dv = understanding of taught words measured by preferential looking
result video chat like real interaction = verbs learnt, not just watching
cooing
babies first produce
6 weeks old
pre babbling
more vowel based
babbling
5 months
more constant and vowel sounds = more diverse than babbling
2 videos - baby babbles whilst looking at book, other two twins have a babble based conversation almost, full turn taking, seem to understand each others language
video of babbling in deaf baby
parents signing across the table
infant wants to join in the conversation so puts hand in line of sight and makes a hand movement as if signing
when do one word utterances appear
12 month
ealy words = familiar objects, people or social words like bye bye or uhoh
note word like gung which infant repeaedly uses for juice would be considered a word as her use of it was consisitent even if not a real word
when do two word utterances appear and what else happens with language learning at this age
18 - 24 months
rapid increase in word learning
telegraphic speech - eg ride car
