Reading and Language Arts 5002 Flashcards
Phonemic Awareness
The ability to split words into individual sounds or phonemes, which is crucial for spelling and sounding out words.
Rhyme Awareness
The ability to identify and produce rhyming words.
Syllable Awareness
The capacity to split words into their syllable components.
Onset-Rime Awareness
Recognizing and manipulating the onset (initial sound) and the rime (the remaining part of the syllable) in a syllable.
Phoneme Manipulation
The skill to add, delete, or substitute sounds in words.
Phonological awareness
An overarching skill that includes many smaller skills including identifying and manipulating units of oral language, parts of words, syllables, onsets, and rimes.
Children who have phonological awareness can:
*Identify and make oral rhymes.
* Clap the number of syllables in a word.
* Recognize words with the same initial sounds as in monkey and mother.
* Recognize the sound of spoken language.
* Blend sounds together (bl, tr, sk).
* Divide and manipulate words.
Phonemic Awareness
The understanding of individual sounds (or phonemes) in words.
Blending Individual Sounds
This is the ability to put individual sounds in a word together, as in /p/-/a/-/t/ - /pat/. Later we will discuss consonant blending and vowel blending.
Identifying Onsets
These are the beginning consonant or consonant cluster.
Identifying Rime
These are the vowels and consonants that follow the onset consonant cluster. Some common rimes are: -ack, -an, -aw, -ick, -ing, -op, -unk, -ain, -ank, -ay, -ide, -ink, -or, -ock, -ight, -ame, -eat, -ine.
Rhyming
This is the repetition of sounds in different words. Students listen to the sounds within words and identify word parts. For example, the /at/ sound in the word mat is the same /at/ sound in the words cat, rat, sat, and splat.
Segmenting
This is when students break a word apart by different sounds. This can be done by breaking compound words into two parts, segmenting by onset and rime, segmenting by syllables, or breaking the word into individual phonemes. Remember, phonological segmenting is done orally—students are breaking these words down by using sound segments in words.
Isolation
The ability to separate word parts or to isolate a single sound in the word. For example, if the teacher says, “Say just the first sound in bat,” the students reply with /b/.
Deletion
The ability to omit a sound in a word. For example, using the word mice, a teacher may ask students to delete the initial /m/ sound, resulting in the word ice. This skill is usually practiced orally.
Substitution
This is when students replace one sound with another in a word. For example, substitute the first sound in the word cat with an /s/ sound. Students will say sat.
Blending Consonants and Vowel Sounds
This is the ability to string together multiple sounds words. For example, when students hear the word black, they blend the /bl/, the /a/ sound, and the ending /k/ sound. Sometimes blending exercises focus just on the consonant blend, like the /br/ sound in the word brick.
Phoneme isolation
When students hear and separate out individual sounds in words. For example, the student can isolate the /b/ sound in the word bat.
Blending
When students can combine sounds in a word. For example, the three sounds in cat—/c/ /a/ /t/—make up the word cat.
Segmenting
When students can divide the word into individual sounds. This also includes being able to count or identify how many sounds are in a word. For example, in the word mat, there are three sounds—/m/ /a/ /t/.
phoneme manipulation
changing sounds in words
Addition
When students can manipulate a word by adding a sound that is not originally in the word. For example, start with the word pay and add an /l/ sound after the /p/ sound, and the word becomes play. This is adding a medial sound because the added sound is in the middle of the word.
Deletion
When students manipulate the word by deleting sounds to make a new word. For example, start with the word play and delete the /l/ sound and the word becomes pay. This is deleting a medial sound because the deleted sound is in the middle
of the word.
Substitution
The highest level of phonemic awareness because students not only have to identify the sounds and locate them in the word, but they also must switch them with other sounds. For example, start with the word moth and switch the /o/ sound with an /a/ sound and the word becomes math. This is substituting a medial sound because the substituted sound is in the middle of the word.
Simplest to most complex levels of phonemic awareness
Phoneme Isolation
Blending
Segmentation
Addition
Deletion
Substitution
Rhyme
When students can match ending sounds of words as in bat, hat, cat.
Alliteration
When students can identify and produce words with the same initial sound as in sat, see, silly.
Syllable segmentation
When students can blend and segment syllables of spoken words as in hap-py, de-light, sum-mer.
Sentence segmentation
When students can segment sentences into words. For example, He | went | to | the | beach.
Onset and rime blending and segmenting
When students can blend or segment the (onset) initial consonant or consonant cluster and the (rime) vowel and consonant sounds following the rime as in tr- -ack, b- -at, sl- -eep.
Phonological processing
When students use phonemes to process spoken and written language.
Phoneme manipulation
When students can manipulate sounds in words. This is the most complex skill on the continuum and includes several skills:
* Add and delete larger sounds in words (say peanut without the / pea/ sound and it becomes nut).
* Substitute phonemes to create new words (broom becomes zoom, brick becomes stick)
Simplest to most complex levels of phonological awareness.
Rhyme
Alliteration
Sentence Segmentation
Syllable Segmentation
Onset/Rime Blending & Segmentation
Phoneme Blending & Manipulation
Phonological working memory
Involves storing phoneme information in temporary, short-term memory. This phonemic information is then readily available for manipulation during phonological awareness tasks. For example, when students use substitution, they are also using their phonological working memory because they are accessing stored phoneme information to substitute sounds in words.
Phonological retrieval
The ability to recall the phonemes associated with specific graphemes (letters), which can be assessed by rapid naming tasks. This ability to recall the speech sounds in one’s language is also integral to phonological awareness.
Six major areas of phonological Awareness
Phonology
Vocabulary
Morphology
Grammar
Pragmatics
Discourse
Phonology
Encompasses the organization of sounds in language.
Vocabulary
(semantics) Encompasses both expressive (speaking) and receptive (listening) vocabulary.
Morphology
The study of the smallest units of meaning in words. An example of this is breaking up compound words and analyzing their meanings.
Grammar
(syntax) The structure of language and words.
Pragmatics
Focuses on the social cues or norms in language. This is often referred to as situations in language.
Discourse
Focuses on speaking and listening skills in language. It means dialogue.
Phoneme-grapheme correspondence
Also called letter-sound correspondence, is the essence of phonics and word recognition.
Phonemic Awareness
Focus on phonemes or the smallest units of sounds
Spoken language
Mostly auditory
Manipulating sounds in words
Phonics
Focus on graphemes or letters and their corresponding sounds
Written language/print
Both visual and auditory
Reading and writing letters according to sounds, spelling, patterns, and phonological structure
Print Awareness
When students have this, they understand that written words communicate a message. They also understand that words are separated by spaces, text is written in a particular direction, and sentences have distinguishing features, such as capitalization and punctuation.
Alphabetic Principle
The idea that letters and letter patterns represent the sounds of spoken language. When students can point to a letter and say the name of the letter, they are using this.
Environmental print
The print of everyday life. It is the name given to the print that appears on signs, labels, and logos. Street signs, candy wrappers, labels on peanut butter and cereal boxes are examples of this.
Print concepts
Involves understanding the difference between letters, words, punctuation, and directionality. This fosters reading comprehension and vocabulary growth.
Directionality
Reading from left to right and top to bottom
Layout
Front and back of books
Differentiation
Words vs. pictures and letters vs. words
Strategies to promote print awareness and tracking print:
- Hang labels on key objects in the classroom—door, sink, library, blocks.
- Use posters that include captions and pictures.
- Display an oversized book to show directionality and print.
- Point out the title, headings, beginning, middle, and end of a book or passage before reading.
5 early signs of print awareness:
- The child holds a book correctly. If you hand a book upside down to the child, the child will turn it right side up.
- The child understands that books are read from left to right, top to bottom, and front to back.
- The child pretends to write by scribbling. This means the child understands that pictures and writing are distinct from one another.
- The child points to a story and asks you to read it, understanding that the words on the page have meaning.
- The child picks up a familiar book and reads it aloud. The child is using a memory of the story and is not actually reading the book.
To promote the alphabetic principle, teachers should:
- Teach letter-sound relationships explicitly and in isolation.
- Provide opportunities for children to practice letter-sound relationships in daily lessons.
- Provide practice opportunities that include new sound-letter relationships, as well as cumulatively reviewing previously taught relationships.
- Use writing or print to represent what students say during class, so students understand that speech can be represented in print.
Pre-Alphabetic Phase
(Reading)
Students read words by memorizing visual features or guessing words from context.
Partial-Alphabetic Phase
Students recognize some letters and can use them to remember words by sight.
Full-Alphabetic Phase
Readers possess extensive working knowledge of the graphophonemic system, and they can use this knowledge to analyze the connections between graphemes and phonemes in words. They can decode unfamiliar words and store sight words in memory.
Consolidated-Alphabetic Phase
Students consolidate their knowledge of grapheme-phoneme blends into larger units that recur in different words.
Systematic phonics instruction
Is using a logical and specific scope and sequence that is developmentally appropriate to teach students the major letters and sounds. This includes short and long vowels, blends, and consonant digraphs (oi, ea, sh, th, etc.). This plan is carefully thought out, strategic, and designed before activities and lessons are developed.
Recursive phonics instruction
Involves lessons built on those previously taught, and students will have to draw and recall from previous skills. Lessons move from simple to complex and include clear, concise student objectives. Students have to use their prior knowledge to learn complex skills.
Skills required to be a proficient reader.
Decoding
Encoding
Fluency
Comprehension
Decoding
Sounding out words while reading. The student uses phonics generalizations, letter-sound correspondence, and phonological awareness.
Encoding
The process of hearing a word and spelling it based on sounds and phonics. It is usually assessed with a spelling test.
Fluency
Moving through the text accurately without having to stop to decode.
Comprehension
Reading fluently and understanding the text by forming pictures in the brain, predicting, and asking questions.
Single letters
A single consonant letter can be represented by a phoneme.
b, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, v, w, y, z
Doublets
Uses two of the same letters to spell a consonant phoneme.
ff, ll, ss, zz
Digraphs
Two-letter (di-) combinations that create one phoneme.
th, sh, ch, wh, ph, ng (sing), gh (cough), ck
Trigraphs
Three-letter (tri-) combinations that create one phoneme.
-tch -dge
Diphthong
Sounds formed by the combination of two vowels in a single syllable, in which the sound begins as one vowel and moves toward another. They can appear in the initial, middle, or final position in a word.
aisle, coin, loud
Consonant blends
Include two or three graphemes, and the consonant sounds are separate and identifiable.
s-c-r (scrape) c-l (clean)
l-k (milk)
Silent letter combinations
Combinations use two letters: one represents the phoneme and the other is silent.
kn (knock) wr (wrestle) gn (gnarl)
Combination
qu
These two letters always go together and make a /kw/ sound.
quickly
Single letters
A single vowel letter that stands for a vowel sound.
(short vowels) cat, hit, gem, pot, sub (long vowels) me, no, mute
Vowel teams
Combinations of two, three, or four letters that stand for a vowel sound.
(short vowels) head, hook (long vowels) boat, rain, weigh (diphthongs) soil, bout
Schwa sound
Vowel sound in an unstressed syllable, where a vowel does not make its long or short vowel sound. It is often called the “lazy” sound in a word. The symbol for this is Ə.
a: balloon e: problem i: family
o: bottom u: support y: analysis
/zh/ sound
This sound often occurs after the letter G, but not always. For example, after the letter S, the consonant that most commonly forms the /ʒ/ sound is “soft G.” This sound, however, cannot be represented by any one letter and instead can be formed by s, si, g, and ge.
vision – vi/zh/un garage – gara/zh/ measure – mea/zh/ur decision – deci/zh/un visual – vi/zh/ual
Open
A syllable that ends with a single vowel.
The vowel is not closed in by a consonant. The vowel is usually long.
The letter y acts like a vowel.
go no fly he
Closed
A syllable with a single vowel followed by one or more consonants.
The vowel is closed in by a consonant.
The vowel sound is usually short.
cat bat clock letter
Vowel- Consonant- Silent e
A syllable with a single vowel followed by a consonant then the vowel e.
The first vowel sound is long, and the final e is silent.
Can be referred to as the sneaky silent e.
bike skate kite poke
Vowel Teams (Diphthong)
A syllable that has two consecutive vowels.
Vowel teams can be divided into two types:
− Long vowel teams: Two vowels that make one long vowel sound.
− Variant vowel teams: Two vowels that make neither a long nor a short vowel sound but rather a variant. Letters w and y act as vowels.
Long vowel teams: eat, seat, say, see
Variant vowel teams: stew, paw, book
Exceptions: bread (makes a short vowel sound)
R-controlled
A syllable with one or two vowels followed by the letter r.
The vowel is not long or short. The r influences or controls the vowel sound.
car far her fur sir
Consonant le (-al, -el)
Final syllable
A syllable that has a consonant followed by the letters le, al, or el.
The ending is often one syllable.
This is the only syllable type without the vowel sound.
table stable local
Syllable clapping
Students clap and say the syllable at the same time. For example, in the word
apple, students clap once for -ap and then again for -ple. The word evenly has three claps: -e, -ven, -ly.
Syllable lists
create a list of prefixes, suffixes, roots, ly, le, and others.
Multisyllabic word manipulation
Write different syllables on note cards. Jumble the cards and have students put them in the correct order so the word makes sense.
Structural analysis
Breaking up words into different parts. For example, in the compound word sidewalk, students would break the word into two parts: side and walk.
Students can also break words up by their prefixes, suffixes, and roots. For example, In the word predictable, the students can break the words into pre/ dict/ able.
Syllable scoop
students scoop under each syllable of multisyllable words. table (with a “u” under “ta” and another “u’ under ble.
Compound words
These are two words put together. Example: mailman, sidewalk
Root words
The basic part of the word. It stands alone in meaning and often comes from Latin languages.
Example: In the word unbelievable, the _______ is believe. In the word complex, the ______ is plex.
Affixes
These are additional elements placed at the beginning or end of a root, stem, or word, or in the body of a word to modify its meaning.
Example: The word unbelievable contains _______ in the form of a prefix (un) and a suffix (able).
Prefixes
These are additions to the beginning of root words that help to form a new word with another meaning from that of the root word. They are at the beginning of a word. They are considered affixes.
Example: _______ that indicate not: un- (unknown), dis- (disregard), im-(impossible), in- (inaccurate), mis- (misunderstand), and ir- (irrational).
Suffixes
These are additions to the end of root words that form a new word with another meaning from that of the root word. ______ are considered affixes. They change the part of speech (past tense, present tense) or verb tense of a word. They also indicate whether the word is plural or singular.
Example: -ed, -ing, and plural -s are all _______
Etymology
The study of the origins of words and how they have changed over time. If students are analyzing root words and their meaning, they are using _______
Free Morphemes
These morphemes can stand alone because they mean something in and of themselves. For example, in the word closely, the morpheme close is a _________. It can stand alone
Bound Morphemes
These morphemes only have meaning when they are connected to another morpheme. In the word closely, the morpheme ly cannot stand on its own and only has meaning when it is attached to the other morpheme—close.
High Frequency or Sight words
These are words that show up in text frequently. Students should memorize these words because it helps them save their cognitive endurance for more difficult reading tasks.
Word building
Provide students with letters or clusters of letters on different cards and using them
to form different words.
Decodable texts
Carefully sequence activities to progressively incorporate words that are consistent with the letter–sound relationships.
Authentic and shared reading tasks
Use an interactive reading experience where the teacher guides students as they read text. The teacher explicitly models the skills of proficient readers, including reading with fluency and expression.
Oral reading
Read aloud in class, to a partner, in cooperative groups, or with a teacher.
Whisper reading
Instead of reading out loud or silently, students read in a whisper voice. This allows students to make mistakes without feeling embarrassed. It also helps students with decoding and fluency.
Word walls
This is a literacy tool composed of an organized collection of words which are displayed in large visible letters on a wall, bulletin board, or other display surface in a classroom. These will be discussed further in the vocabulary section of the study guide.
Interactive writing
The students and teacher share the process of writing. The teacher begins by writing a word or a piece of a word, and the student continues.
Semantic cues
Refer to the meaning in language that assists in comprehending texts, including words, speech, signs, symbols, and other meaning-bearing forms. It does involve the learners’ prior knowledge of language. Gradually, students independently relate new information to what is known and personally meaningful.
These are especially helpful for homographs—words that are spelled the same but have different meaning.
* For example: Thinking about leaving her friends made Jane blue.
Syntactic cues
Involves the structure of the word as in the rules and patterns of language (grammar) and punctuation. As students read, they use structural cues.
Example: Joey sat in class yesterday.
In this case, the student is sure to say sat not sit because the word yesterday indicates there needs to be a
past tense verb in the sentence—sat.
Graphophonic Cues
Involves the letter-sound or sound- symbol relationships of language. Readers identifying unknown words by relating speech sounds to letters or letter patterns are using graphophonic cues. This process is often called decoding.
Example: The student knows that the word make has a long /a/ sound because an e follows the k. This is a CVCe word.
Stage 1: Pre-Production
ELL
This is commonly known as the silent period. At this stage, students are listening and deciphering vocabulary. Students may have receptive vocabulary (listening), but they are not speaking yet. In this stage, students benefit from repetition when trying to understand new words and phrases.
Stage 2: Early Production
ELL
This stage can last up to six months. Students at this stage understand about 1000 words in the new language. Students begin to form short phrases that may be grammatically incorrect. Students at this stage will use pictures to represent ideas in the new language.
Stage 3: Speech Emergence
ELL
At this stage, students will start to communicate with simple phrases and sentences. Students understand up to 3000 words during this stage. Students also begin to develop comprehension in the new language (L2).
Stage 4: Intermediate Fluency
ELL
During this stage, students have a robust vocabulary in the second language—6000 or more words. Students begin to communicate effectively in their writing and speech.
Stage 5: Advanced Fluency
ELL’s
At this stage, students are proficient and have comprehension and critical thinking in the second language. It can take 4–10 years for students to achieve academic proficiency in a second language.
WIDA Descriptors for Language Acquisition
6 Reaching
- Specialized or technical language reflective of the content area at grade level
- A variety of sentence lengths of varying linguistic complexity in extended oral or written discourse as required by the specified grade level
- Oral or written communication in English comparable to proficient English peers
WIDA Descriptors for Language Acquisition
5 Bridging
- The technical language of the content areas
- A variety of sentence lengths of varying linguistic complexity in extended oral or written discourse, including stories, essays, or reports
- Oral or written language approaching comparability to that of English proficient peers when presented with grade-level material
WIDA Descriptors for Language Acquisition
4 Expanding
- Specific and some technical language of the content areas
- A variety of sentence lengths of varying linguistic complexity in oral discourse or multiple, related paragraphs
- Oral or written language with minimal phonological, syntactic, or semantic errors that do not impede the overall meaning of the communication when presented with oral or written connected discourse with occasional visual and graphic support
WIDA Descriptors for Language Acquisition
3 Developing
- General and some specific language of the content areas
- Expanded sentences in oral interaction or written paragraphs
- Oral or written language with phonological, syntactic, or semantic errors that may impede the communication but retain much of its meaning when presented with oral or written, narrative, or expository descriptions with occasional visual and graphic support
WIDA Descriptors for Language Acquisition
2 Beginning
- General language related to the content areas
- Phrases or short sentences
- Oral or written language with phonological, syntactic, or semantic errors that often impede the meaning of the communication when presented with one to multiple-step commands, directions, questions, or a series of statements with visual and graphic support
WIDA Descriptors for Language Acquisition
1 Entering
- Pictorial or graphic representation of the language of the content areas
- Words, phrases, or chunks of language when presented with one-step commands, directions, or statements with visual and graphic support
Prepositions
– Example: She was born on 1956.
– Correction: She was born in 1956.
Present perfect
– Example: I have been to Florida in 2015.
– Correction: I have been to Florida.
– Correction: I was in Florida in 2015.
Phrasal verbs
– Example: There is no concert because the singer called off it.
– Correction: There is no concert because the singer called it off.
Count and noncount nouns
– Example: How many homeworks do we have?
– Correction: How much homework do we have?
Gerunds and infinitives
– Example: I avoid to give money to my kids.
– Correction: I avoid giving money to my kids.
Modals
– Example: I must to study tonight.
– Correction: I must study tonight.
Passive voice
– Example: I was sleeping when the party was happened.
– Correction: I was sleeping when the party happened.
Pedagogy
The act of teaching.
Visual
Using pictures, hands-on materials, and other visual tools
EX. When teaching vocabulary, the teacher presents the word and a picture to resemble the concept that is being taught.
Cooperative Learning
Allowing students to work collaboratively in groups
EX. When analyzing meaning in text, students engage in literature circles— small groups engaging in text analysis.
Honor the “Silent Period”
The “_________” is part of the learning process. Allowing the student to stay quiet, observe, and learn will benefit the student’s ability to continually learn in the classroom.
EX. When teaching an English language arts class, the teacher allows students who are ELL to sit silently. The teacher does not call on these students or require them to speak during class.
Allow Use of Native Language
Allowing students to continue to use their native language until they build proficiency in their second language is a way to scaffold learning of the second language.
EX. During class, some students who are ELL explain some of their experience to one another in their native language. The teacher understands this is an important part of language acquisition.
Comprehension
The essence of reading. It is when students begin to form images in their minds as they read. They can predict what might happen next in a story because they understand what is currently happening in the story. Students who are in this stage of reading do not need to decode (sound out) words. They read fluently with prosody, automaticity, and accuracy.
Prosody
Timing, phrasing, emphasis, and intonation that readers use to help convey aspects of meaning and to make their speech lively. It includes stopping at periods, pausing at commas, reading with inflection, and reading with expression.
Automaticity
Effortless word recognition that comes with repeated reading practice. When students are reading at > 95 percent accuracy, they have this.
Accuracy
The number of words a student reads
correctly. Typically, this is measured by having students read aloud during a fluency read (also called a running record). The student reads, and the teacher marks any words the student miscues.
Rate
The speed at which students read words correctly. It is typically expressed in correct words per minute (wpm).
Stages of Fluency
- Accurate, automatic letter naming
- Word reading
- Reading connected text
- Reading complex academic texts
Fluency
The bridge between decoding and comprehension.
Prosody
The bridge between fluency and comprehension.
Cognitive endurance
The ability to sustain performance over time during a cognitively effortful task. When students read long pieces of text, they are using this. Therefore, it is important to help students strengthen this.
Choral Reading
Reading aloud in unison with a whole class or group of students.
Refrain
One student reads the narrative part of the text; the rest of the class reads the refrain.
Antiphon
The class is divided in two groups; one group reads one part, and the other group reads the other part.
Basal reading
Leveled reading books
EX. Dick and Jane series
HELPS WITH: Automaticity
Running records
Assessing a student’s fluency by determining the student’s rate or how many correct words per minute (wpm) a student reads during a timed activity.
EX. Following along as a student reads and marking when he or she makes a mistake or miscues. At the end, the teacher counts how many words per minute (wpm) the student read correctly.
HELPS WITH: Automaticity, accuracy, rate, prosody
Miscue analysis
Looking over the running record, analyzing why the student miscued, and employing strategies to help the student with miscues.
EX. After a fluency read, the teacher and student analyze the mistakes the student made and come up with strategies to fix those mistakes.
HELPS WITH: Accuracy
Repeated reading
Reading text that is at the student’s independent reading level over and over again to help with fluency.
EX. The teacher has a student read a passage and then re-read the passage several times
over the course of a week to build automaticity and reading confidence.
HELPS WITH: Automaticity, rate, accuracy, prosody
Readers’ theater
A strategy for developing reading fluency. It engages students by having students read parts of a script.
EX. Students are reading a story; each student is one of the characters in the book. Students read aloud through the text.
HELPS WITH: Prosody
Choral reading
Reading aloud in unison through a piece of text.
EX. The teacher uses choral reading with ELL students to help them with fluency and confidence.
HELPS WITH: Accuracy, prosody, confidence
Silent sustained reading
Students read silently on their own.
EX. The teacher dedicates 15 minutes every day to having students read their novels on their own.
HELPS WITH: Automaticity, accuracy, rate, prosody
Data folders
Students keep their fluency data in a folder and use that information to draft goals.
EX. Students chart the number of correct words per min during their fluency reads. They use this information to see progress and make new goals.
HELPS WITH: Automaticity, accuracy, rate, confidence, and goal setting
Conferencing
Meeting with individual students to review their reading data.
EX. A teacher is going over recent fluency data with a student and noting gains in the student’s correct words per min. They decide to increase goals and celebrate gains.
HELPS WITH: Automaticity, accuracy, rate, confidence, and goal setting
Key details
Specific pieces of information in a text. These can include characters, setting, and plot. These help the reader summarize important information in the story. These will help build comprehension of the text.
Moral
This is the lesson that the story teaches about how to behave in the world. Fables use these to convey meaning.
Theme
Is the overall feeling or underlying topic of the text. Students will often have to identify the this of a story in reading comprehension assessments.
Setting
Where the story takes place. This also provides the reader with the context of the time, place, and environment. A well-developed _______ improves the reader’s experience and adds to the story’s development with plot, mood, and characters.
Plot
The backbone of everything else happening in the story—it encompasses the characters, the setting, the climax, and the resolution. The _____ and structure encompass the overall design of the story or piece of writing. In literary work, the structure can contribute to the meaning.
Tone
Usually comes from the words spoken by the characters. Intense words give an intense _____. Words that are remorseful can set a regretful _______ to a story.
Mood
The overall emotional atmosphere of a story or piece.
Conflict
Is a struggle between opposing forces. This can be between two characters or a character and the environment. When characters act to confront opposing forces, ______ is established. If there is nothing to overcome, there is no story. ________ in a story moves the plot forward.
Citing textual evidence
Refers to using the text to support answers. Asking students to defend positions using the text is part of the Common Core State Standards for literacy. ____________ can be used when asking for key details in the story, theme, moral, or central idea.
Jigsaw
A cooperative learning activity in which each student or groups of students read and analyze a small piece of information that is part of a much larger piece. They share what they learned with the class.
EX. The teacher arranges students into groups. Each group reads and analyzes a piece of a text. Group members then join with members of other groups, and each student shares and discusses his or her section of the text. As the group shares, the entire text is covered. It is referred to as ________ because students complete the puzzle when they share their individual pieces.
Chunking
A reading activity that involves breaking down a difficult text into manageable pieces.
EX. In a science class, students break down a lengthy and complex chapter on genetics by focusing on pieces of the text. The teacher has planned for students to read and analyze the text one paragraph at a time.
Close Reading
Involves the use
of evidence-based comprehension strategies embedded in teacher- guided discussions that are planned around repeated readings of a single text.
EX. Teacher reads the text aloud and models metacognitive strategies.
Students and teacher read the text aloud together and answer guiding questions.
In cooperative groups, students reread the text, analyzing it for different elements.
Think-Pair- Share
A cooperative learning activity in which students work together to solve
a problem or answer a question.
EX. ______ – The teacher asks a specific question about the text. Students “think” about what they know or have learned about the topic.
__________ – Students pair up to read and discuss.
__________ - Students share what they’ve learned in their pairs. Teachers can then expand the “share” into a whole-class discussion.
Reading Response Journals
A writing activity where students use journals to react to what they read by expressing how they feel and asking questions about the text.
EX. After reading a chapter of a book in class, the teacher asks students to use their reading response journals to respond to the story emotionally, make associations between ideas in the text and their own ideas, and record questions they may have about the story.
Evidence- Based Discussion
The teacher sets the expectation that students use evidence in the text to support claims they make during the discussion.
EX. The class is discussing World War II. Students are asking and answering questions. When making claims, students identify support for those claims in the text.
Literature Circles
A small-group, cooperative learning activity where students engage and discuss a piece of literature/ text.
EX. In their cooperative groups, students read and analyze text together. Each student contributes to the learning. There is an administrator who decides when to read and when to stop and discuss. There is a notetaker who writes down important information. There are two readers who take turns reading the text based on the administrator’s suggestions.
Reciprocal Teaching
An instructional activity in which students become the teacher in small group reading sessions.
EX. After engaging in a close read of a piece of literary text, students facilitate questions, exercises, and discussion in small groups.
SQ3R
This is a reading comprehension activity that stands for:
* Survey. Students scan titles, headings, charts, graphs, etc. to get a feel for the entire text.
* Question. Students turn the headings and subheadings into questions and answer these questions as they read.
* Read. Students read the text for comprehension.
* Recite. Students begin to answer the questions they generated.
* Review. Students summarize what they have read.
An inference
Is when a student reaches a conclusion
based on evidence. In reading, ideas are not always explicitly stated. Therefore, students must make _______. Using clues and information from the text helps students answer __________ questions. The text is used as evidence to show the understanding or reasoning behind the answer. ___________ is a higher-order skill and involves critical thinking.
Analysis
Is a high-level skill that involves several processes in the brain. Teaching students to analyze text is a complex process involving comprehension and metacognition. At times, students struggle to read for surface comprehension, so when they are asked to analyze text, they struggle to know what that means and how to do it. There is no simple checklist to give students for analytical reading. Teachers must model the skills.
Metacognition
Is thinking about thinking or being aware of the thought process. When students have this, they understand the processes in their minds and can employ a variety of techniques to understand the text. The most effective way to model _______ in English language arts is through a read aloud/think aloud strategy.
Comprehension
Is a high-level cognitive skill essential in analyzing text. Students must make connections, access and apply prior knowledge, and think deeply about the text. This type of critical thinking while reading involves moving beyond memorization; it involves evaluating all elements of the text and deriving meaning from them. Reading _________ skills include questioning, summarizing, and predicting.
Questioning
Having students ask questions based on what they are reading.
Summarizing
Asking students to summarize what they just read in their own words.
Predicting
Asking students what they think will happen next.
Semantic structures
Semantics is the study of meaning in language.
EX. A teacher would like students to determine the connotative meaning of words. She writes the following sentences on board and asks students to analyze the meaning of the word right.
The car turned right and disappeared. She knew something was not right.
Syntactic structures
Grammatical/ sentence structure
EX. A teacher would like to illustrate how syntax can help the reader determine emotion in a text. She asks students to analyze repetition and sentence length. In groups, students try to determine the meaning of a repetitive _________ and change in sentence length (e.g., from long to short sentences).
Imagery
Appealing to a reader’s senses by using descriptive, sensory language
EX. Students are asked to write a paragraph describing an experience in which they felt scared. To appeal to the reader’s senses, one student writes the following sentence: “The room was dark and cold.”
Diction
The style of speaking and writing; the choice of words
EX. The teacher is instructing students on informal and formal diction. She asks students to write on one distinct topic in two different ways. She shows the following sentences to the class to illustrate the difference:
Formal: “I am not optimistic about this new opportunity.” Informal: “I’m not cool with this new situation.”
Activating prior knowledge
This pre-reading strategy asks students what they already know about a topic to provide a framework, or schema, to tie the new information to. A KWL chart— What do you know (K), what do you want to know (W), what did you learn (L)— is helpful for this strategy.
Schema building
Schema is stored clusters of concepts or knowledge from previous experiences. Schema and background knowledge are synonymous. ____________ can be applied in the classroom to improve the learning experience. One way to build schema is to help readers actively relate their own knowledge to ideas in the text.
Clarifying
Also called the “fix up” strategy, this is a during-reading strategy where students monitor their comprehension by asking questions, re-reading, and searching for context clues when the text is confusing.
Generating questions
Students ask and answer questions at key points in the text in this during-reading strategy. This strategy is also effective for facilitating discussion about the text.
Paraphrasing
This can happen at key points during reading or after reading. It is effective for monitoring comprehension because the student cannot reword what the author said if the student does not understand what the text said. It is an easy formative assessment to guide future instructional support.
Analyzing
Analysis happens during close reads and after the reading is over. Students reread key pieces of text with a specific task or question in mind, developing deeper levels of understanding.
Summarizing
This after-reading strategy requires the student to synthesize the details and information presented in the text into a statement that sums up the main idea.
Graphic Organizer
Is a visual or graphic display that depicts the relationships between facts, terms, and ideas within a text. Most English language arts teachers use _________ to help students organize information as they read. _____________ are effective for all students, but they are especially effective for visual learners.
KWL charts
Are used to activate or build background knowledge. KWL stands for:
* (K) What do you know?
* (W) What do you want to know?
* (L) What did you learn?
Venn diagrams
Are used to compare and contrast characters, content, or events in the text.
Mind maps
Are diagrams to visually organize ideas and concepts. The central idea or concept is placed in the center of the diagram, and then related ideas are added.
Narrative
The purpose of _______ text is to entertain or present a personal story.
Written in first-person narrative (I, me, us, we).
Expository
This type of text explains a phenomenon or situation without personal opinion. It is informational.
Written in third-person narrative (he, she, they, them).
Argumentative/ Persuasive
This includes writing that is for or against an issue.
Persuasive text includes certain elements: claim, reason, evidence, counterclaim, and rebuttal.
Cause/effect
Authors use this structure when they want to establish a causal relationship between an event and the events that come after.
Words used in this type of text structure include: because of, as a result of, due to, for this reason, in order to, since, the cause, as a result, therefore, then/so, this led to, thus, so, consequently.
Chronological/ sequential
Events in this structure are organized in chronological order (and sometimes reverse chronological order).
Words used in this type of text structure include: after, at, before, during, finally, first, second, third, last, next, then, until.
Compare/ contrast
Authors communicate the similarities and differences between and among sets of events, concepts, ideas, or people.
Words used in this type of text structure include: more/less, in contrast to, in spite of, instead of, nevertheless, on the other hand, rather than, similarly, still, though, unlike, as, as opposed to, however, despite, likewise, either/or.
Descriptive
Authors use __________ language to paint a picture for the reader.
Words used in this type of text structure include: for example, for instance, looks like, sounds like, feels like, any descriptive adjectives.
Problem/ solution
Authors present an issue or set of issues and possible solutions then examine the effects of the solutions presented.
Words used in this type of text structure include: because, one part of, as a result, consequently, if/then, remedy, solution, problem, issue.
Question/ answer
A question is posed at the beginning, and the author answers the question in the text.
Words used in this type of text structure include: answer, it could be that, one may conclude, perhaps, problem, question, solution, the best estimate, how, what, when, who, why.
Table of contents
Outline of the text with page references
Headings
Bold words or phrases that separate the text by main idea
Diagrams and pictures
Visual aids to support the text
Glossary
Definitions of key terms used in the text
Index
Page references for key terms used in the text
Sidebar
More information found on the side or bottom of a website.
Hyperlink
Used to point the reader to additional information. Brings the reader to another website or file and is usually indicated with a different color text that is underlined.
Students will also have to evaluate the point of view in literary text. The teacher might ask:
- Who is telling the story?
- How do you know this?
- What type of narrative is being used?
First Person
A narrator in the story recounts his or her own perspective, experience, or impressions. The pronouns I, we, me, us, are used in the text.
Third Person Objective
The narrator remains a detached observer, telling only the action and dialogue.
Second Person
The story is written in the perspective of you.
Third Person Limited
The narrator tells the story from the viewpoint of one character in the story.
Third Person Omniscient
The narrator has unlimited knowledge and can describe every character’s thoughts and interpret their behaviors. Omniscient means all-knowing.
Picture books
These books contain illustrations that are just as important, and sometimes more important than the words in the book. These books present material in the form of illustrations and short pieces of text. An example of a picture book is The Very Hungry Caterpillar by Eric Carle. Using bold, graphic art, this book walks students through several concepts: counting, days of the week, and the life cycle of a butterfly.
Graphic novel
These books are like comic books but longer. They can be fictional or informational. They contain graphic depictions of what is happening in the story, and the dialogue is set apart like it is in a comic book.
Pattern books
These books have a predictable sequence because they use a strong repetitive pattern that allows children to predict what is coming next as they read. Types of __________ include rhyme, repeated words or phrases, and familiar expressions. ___________ can be used to increase young readers’ confidence and fluency.
Multimedia presentation
These include information presented with slides, video, or digital representations.
Oral/audio version of the text
In centers, students use headphones and listen to the story as they follow along in the text. This exercise can increase fluency and comprehension.
The stage version of the text
In groups, students act out certain parts of the text. This is often referred to as reader’s theater and can help with fluency—students reading their parts—and comprehension.
The film version of the text
Using YouTube or media resources, students can watch the film version of the text and identify similarities and differences between the book and the film version. This helps to cultivate critical thinking.
Making connections between two texts
Is a high-level, critical thinking skill because it requires the ability to not just comprehend each text individually, but also to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate the ideas presented in each to draw connections and establish relationships. It involves understanding themes, characters, ideas, or facts in one text and relating them to another.
Analysis
Comparing two or more informational or literary texts
Breaking down the information and ideas in each text into parts, looking for relationships among the parts, and understanding the structure of the text.
Synthesis
Comparing two or more informational or literary texts
Combining the ideas and information from the two texts to form a new whole. It’s about connecting ideas and creating something new out of the existing pieces.
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Is a hierarchical model used to classify educational learning objectives into levels of complexity and specificity. The higher up the pyramid, the more complex the thinking skills. The skills are represented as verbs on the pyramid.
Evaluation
Comparing two or more informational or literary texts
Making judgments about the value and worth of the ideas and information in the two texts. It includes critiquing and reviewing the texts considering the connections identified.
Order of Bloom’s Taxonomy
Apply
Create
Analyze
Evaluate
Compare & Contrast
Categorize
Understand & Identify
Remember & Memorize
Bloom’s Taxonomy
The skills (verbs) at the highest points of the pyramid are:
apply, evaluate, analyze, and create.
Qualitative
This type of data CANNOT be quantified. Instead, this data often comes in the form of anecdotal responses or scenarios.
Example: While a teacher is observing students as they read, she notices some students are struggling. She decides to intervene with a different text or targeted interventions.
Quantitative
Data that CAN be quantified. When analyzing this type of data, teachers often look over reading levels, words per min and other measures that can be represented as numbers.
Example: A teacher uses students’ correct words per min to determine the Lexile levels of subsequent books they will use.
Reader and Task
These are the reader variables (motivation, knowledge, and experience) and task variables (purpose and complexity generated by the task assigned and the question posed). These variables can be measured both qualitatively and quantitatively.
Example: A teacher chooses books that students have expressed interest in. The teacher understands the students are more likely to engage in text they are motivated to read.
Text-leveling systems
Allows teachers to implement reading strategies to meet the needs of students. Identifying the different levels in the classroom will allow the teacher to drive instruction, focus on areas of improvement, and enrich students’ individual needs. This data should be used to make instructional decisions.
Outline of text-leveling systems
Emergent- Kindergarten
Early- Grade 1
Transitional- Grade 2 & 3
Fluent- Grades 4, 5, & 6
Proficient- Grades 7, 8, & 9-12
Fable
A short story that conveys a moral, typically with animals as characters.
EX. The Three Little Pigs
Legend
A narrative that features human actions that take place within human history and demonstrate human values. There is no proof that these stories happened, yet they are told repeatedly. These stories are often passed down by word of mouth.
EX. The Legend of Sleepy Hallow
Biography
An account of a person’s life story written by an outside author.
EX. A Biography of Martin Luther King Jr.
Realistic Fiction
A genre consisting of stories that could have occurred to people or animals in a believable setting.
EX. Ramona the Pest
Fantasy
Stories set in an imaginary universe, where the locations, events, or people are not from the real world.
EX. A Wrinkle in Time
Informational Text
- Written primarily to inform
- Literary nonfiction
- History/social science texts
- Science/technical texts
- Digital texts
Literary Text
- Adventure
- Folktales
- Legends
- Fables
- Fantasy
- Realistic fiction
- Myths
Multicultural literature
Using ___________ helps students to see themselves in the literature they read (text to self). The challenge for teachers is identifying authentic, reliable books by and about people of color and First/Native Nations.
Realistic fiction
Fictional stories that could be true.
Historical fiction
Fictional stories set during a real event or time in history. These stories will have historically accurate events and locations.
Science fiction
Fictional stories that focus on space, the future, aliens, and other galaxies.
Fantasy
Fictional stories that contain monsters, fairies, magic, or other fantastical elements.
Nonfiction
Informational text
Text that informs the reader, such as a social science textbook.
Nonfiction
Biographies
Text that tells the life of another person.
Nonfiction
Autobiographies
Text that describes one’s own life.
Nonfiction
Persuasive writing
Writing that takes a position where the main goal is to persuade the reader to think or believe something.
Poetry
Limerick
A humorous verse of three long and two short rhyming lines (aabba).
Poetry
Sonnet
A poem of fourteen lines using any of several formal rhyme schemes.
Poetry
Ballad
A narrative poem comprised of quatrains.
Poetry
Epic
A long narrative that focuses on the trials and tribulations of a hero or godlike character who represents the cultural values of a race, nation, or religious group.
Poetry
Haiku
A Japanese poem consisting of 3 lines and 17 syllables.
Poetry
Elegy
A song or poem written to reflect upon a death. It uses elegiac couplets, written in honor of someone deceased.
Poetry
Free verse
A poem that lacks a consistent rhyme scheme or metrical pattern.
Folklore
Fable
A short story that contains animals that speak and act like humans. There is usually a moral at the end of a fable.
Folklore
Myth
A story that showcases gods or goddesses and typically outlines the creation of something.
Folklore
Legend
A story that may have once been true but is exaggerated, usually about extraordinary human beings.
Folklore
Fairy tale
A story that has both human and magical creatures in it.
Dramas
Comedy
Entertainment consisting of jokes and satirical sketches, intended to make an audience laugh.
Dramas
Tragedy
A play dealing with tragic events and having an unhappy ending, especially one concerning the downfall of the main character.
Opinion/Argumentative Writing
In this form of writing, the author takes a stand on an issue and presents arguments to persuade the reader to agree with their viewpoint. The writer supports their opinion with logical reasoning, facts, and evidence, while also acknowledging and refuting opposing views. The purpose is to convince the reader to accept the author’s viewpoint or take a certain action.
Informative/Expository Writing
The main goal of this type of writing is to explain, inform, or describe. It presents a balanced analysis of a topic based on facts, without the author’s personal opinions. This could include explaining a process (like how something works), comparing and contrasting things, or providing detailed information on a topic. The writing is typically clear, concise, and logical, often structured in a step-by-step or part-by-part manner.
Narrative Writing
This type of writing tells a story. It can either be fiction or nonfiction and it often involves characters, a setting, a plot, a conflict, and a resolution. The purpose is to entertain, engage, or enlighten the reader, and it often includes elements of description and dialogue. Personal narratives (stories based on personal experiences) and short stories are examples of narrative writing.
Speeches
These are usually written to be spoken aloud and can serve several purposes. They could be persuasive (aiming to convince the audience to adopt a certain viewpoint or take a certain action), informational (sharing important facts or data), or inspirational (meant to motivate or uplift the audience). The key components of speeches include a clear introduction that grabs the audience’s attention, a body where the main points are elaborated, and a conclusion that succinctly wraps up the speech and, in many cases, includes a call to action. Techniques like rhetorical questions, repetition, emotive language, and anecdotes may also be used for greater effect.
Advertisements
The primary purpose of an advertisement is to persuade the audience to buy a product, use a service, or take some other desired action. Key components often include a catchy headline or slogan, compelling images or visuals, persuasive and descriptive language about the product or service, and often a call to action (“Buy now!”, “Visit our store today!”, etc.). Successful advertisements often appeal to the audience’s emotions, needs, or desires, and use strategies such as testimonials, scarcity (limited-time offer), or authority (recommended by experts) to persuade the audience.
Narrative Poems
These are poems that tell a story. They often aim to evoke emotion or convey a theme or moral. Key components include a plot (with a clear beginning, middle, and end), characters, setting, conflict, and resolution. They also use poetic devices such as rhythm, rhyme, alliteration, assonance, and imagery. An example of a subgenre within narrative poems is an epic, which tells a long, heroic tale. Another is a ballad, which often tells a tragic or love story in a song-like poem.
Tone
Refers to the overall feeling of the piece of writing. When writing a narrative vs. an opinion, the tone or position may be different depending on the content. The tone will convey a specific attitude toward the audience and the subject. For example, Pete the Cat by Eric Litwin and James Dean expresses an optimistic tone. Pete the Cat runs into various obstacles but is able to prevail by having a positive attitude.
Purpose
Refers to the reason for the piece of writing. Is the student writing to persuade, entertain, or explain? For example, if a student is writing her state representative to pass a new law, the student should write a persuasive essay. However, if a student is writing to her grandmother to describe how summer camp is going, the student should write a narrative. Establishing a purpose for the piece of writing is an important step in the writing process.
Audience
Refers to the individuals the writer expects to read the piece of writing. As explained above, a student will write very differently in a letter to her grandmother than she will in a letter to her congressional representative. Understanding the audience is a key component of the writing process.
Organization
It is important that students organize their writing by first mapping what they are going to write. Mind maps and other graphic organizers can help students do this.
Transition words
These words connect parts of a paragraph to one another. Helping students identify the right transitional words is useful in organized and coherent writing.
Cooperative learning
These writing workshops help students revise their writing. Peer reviews, brainstorming sessions, and editing roundtables can help students revise their writing in an effective manner. It is important to remember that for cooperative learning to be effective, it must be organized, and everyone in the group must have a role.
Frameworks
These formulas allow students to follow a step-by-step structure as they write. This allows students to plug their information into the pre-established formula. As the students get more proficient in writing, they can modify or abandon the formula.
Rubrics
These assessment tools outline expectations for student writing. Students should not have to guess what the teacher wants to see in the writing assignment. Rubrics outline a set of parameters that help students focus their writing.
Writer’s craft
Includes the techniques, language, and approach writers use to make the writing appealing to the reader. The writer’s craft includes using:
Linking words (transition words)
Precise language
Figurative language
Linking words (transition words)
These are words that link two ideas and are used to provide sentence variety in writing. __________ include:
* For example, * In addition,
* However,
* Therefore,
Precise language
Language that clarifies or identifies specific details. When students use precise language, they are using details that allow the reader or listener to understand the story.
Figurative language
Using metaphor, imagery, hyperbole, etc. in writing to make the writing interesting. The following outlines types of literary devices:
Simile
Imagery
Metaphor
Personification
Onomatopoeia
Hyperbole
Idioms
Alliteration
Irony
Foreshadow
Simile
Using like or as
EX. She was as thin as a rail.
Imagery
A description that conveys a clear picture to the reader
EX. The big, juicy burger with its melted cheese and ripe tomatoes made my mouth water.
Metaphor
Applying word or phrase to an individual or thing
EX. He was a lion filled with rage.
Personification
Attributing human characteristics to something not human
EX. The cat judged me from across the room.
Onomatopoeia
The formation of a word from a sound associated with it
EX. Sizzle, kurplunk, POW!, BAM!
Hyperbole
Exaggerated statements or claims not meant to be taken literally.
EX. The cake must have weighed 500 pounds!
Alliteration
When words that start with the same sound are used repeatedly in a phrase or sentence.
EX. Paul picked purple pickles in pink pants.
Idioms
A word or phrase that means something different from its literal meaning
EX. It’s raining cats and dogs.
Irony
Expression of one’s meaning by using language that normally signifies the opposite, typically for humorous or emphatic effect.
EX. It was raining on National Picnic Day.
Foreshadow
When the author uses clues or imagery to express what might happen next.
The dark spot on the ceiling grew bigger and bigger.
EX. This is used to foreshadow something ominous is coming in the story.
Temporal words
These are used to indicate time. These words include:
* Meanwhile,
* At that moment,
* Before,
* After,
* Then,
* Next,
Sentence variety
Refers to the practice of varying the length and structure of sentences to avoid monotony and provide appropriate emphasis on certain words. It makes the writing lively and unpredictable, which is pleasing to the reader. Using transition words, punctuation, and complex sentences all contribute to sentence variety.
* These sentences lack variety: He went to the store. He bought a candy bar. He was happy.
* This sentence has variety: He went to the story and bought a candy bar, which made him happy.
Dialogue
Used to show a conversation or verbal exchange between characters.
* The woman ran into the room shouting, “They’ve robbed the bank!”
Stages of the writing process
* Pre-writing
Brainstorming ideas, considering purpose and goals for writing, using graphic organizers to connect ideas, and designing a coherent structure for a writing piece.
Stages of the writing process
* Drafting
Working independently to draft the sentence, essay, or paper.
Stages of the writing process
* Peer review
Students evaluate each other’s writing focusing on content and structure.
Stages of the writing process
* Revising
Reworking a piece of writing based on structure, tone, and clear connections.
Stages of the writing process
* Editing
Editing based on grammar and mechanics.
Stages of the writing process
* Rewriting
Incorporating changes as they carefully write or type their final drafts.
Stages of the writing process
* Publishing
Producing and disseminating the work in a variety of ways, such as a class book, bulletin board, letters to the editor, school newsletter, or website.
Mechanics
(Syntactic)
Rubric
A scoring tool used to convey expectations and criteria for a writing assignment. _______ provide an explicit breakdown of the elements assessed. _____ also provide teachers with a framework to implement specific and meaningful feedback.
______ should be given to students:
Before writing to convey explicit expectations.
* During writing so students can check their progress.
* After writing to communicate grades/ progress.
Ideas and Content
(Semantic)
Writing Workshops
* Mini-lesson
A brief, focused, explicit lesson that helps children understand and apply the characteristics of effective writing. This is teacher-led and includes going over the workshop expectations and steps, modeling proper writing, and using examples to clarify information.
Writing Workshops
* Work time
A session when students work on their writing. This is usually done individually. Students will draft and briefly proof their work.
Writing Workshops
* Share time
This is when students work with a partner or in small groups to read over each other’s work and provide feedback. It is helpful to provide students with a rubric for this portion of the workshop because they will need guidance on how to provide feedback to their peers. This part of the workshop often includes peer review.
Developmental stages of writing
Preliterate stage (around 3-5 years old):
This includes scribbling and pre-communicative stages, where children make marks on paper in the form of drawings, random scribbles, or letter-like forms. They start understanding that writing carries meaning but might not yet understand the relationship between letters and sounds.
Developmental stages of writing
Emergent stage (around 5-6 years old):
This corresponds to the semi-phonetic and phonetic stages. In this stage, children start to make the connection between letters and sounds and may use invented spelling. They might write words the way they sound and start to use spaces between words. Their writing at this stage is usually simple, often using labels or captions.
Developmental stages of writing
Transitional stage (around 6-7 years old):
In this stage, children start to learn conventional spelling rules and are moving towards standard writing. They can construct simple sentences and start to use punctuation. Their writing becomes more organized, and they start to write stories, reports, and other types of text. Students at this stage are stringing words together as sentences but still may be spelling phonetically (the way words sound).
Developmental stages of writing
Fluent stage (around 7+ years old):
This is comparable to the conventional stage, where children have an understanding of grammar, spelling, punctuation, and capitalization rules. They can write clearly and coherently, with an organized structure and development of ideas. Their writing includes a variety of sentence structures, rich vocabulary, and they can write for different purposes and audiences.
The Seven Steps of the Research Process
Step 1 – Identify and Develop your Topic
Step 2 – Find Background Information
Step 3 – Organize Information & Citations
Step 4 – Evaluate Information & Write Research Question
Step 5 – Write Draft
Step 6 – Edit, Correct & Revise
Step 7 – Write Final Draft & Cite References
Effective teachers help students conduct research and gather relevant information. The focus of this instruction should be associated with a question, topic, or other form of inquiry. Teachers do this by helping students:
- Locate, select, and gather relevant information from reputable sources.
- Recall and organize information from relevant informational and literary texts.
- Use evidence to support analysis.
- Analyze and reflect on evidence in literary text by comparing and contrasting characters, settings, and events.
- Analyze and reflect on evidence in an informational text by explaining how an author uses reasons and evidence to support claims.
- Determine the credibility, accuracy, and bias of sources.
Primary sources
Are firsthand accounts from people who had direct contact with the event. Examples of ______________ are:
* Autobiographies (written by the person who experienced the event)
* Oral histories
* Memoirs
* Letters
* Diaries
* Speeches
* Photographs
Secondary sources
Attempt to explain the primary source. For example, a newspaper article about Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream” speech is a secondary source. The speech itself is the primary source. ______________ include:
* Biographies (written by someone other than the person who experienced the events)
* Newspaper articles
* Textbooks
* Political commentary
* Dictionaries
* Encyclopedias
Teaching students to properly cite their sources should start in the early grades. Elementary educators can help students develop these good habits so students are prepared for research tasks in later grades. Teachers can support students in this area by asking students to:
document the page number and author where the information was taken, use specific quotes to support claims, and use a list of references students used to write their essays.
Parts of Speech
Noun
person, place, or thing.
car, boat, pilot, rock
Parts of Speech
Adjective
describes nouns
pretty, exciting, small, big
Parts of Speech
Adverb
modifies verbs or adjectives
slowly, quickly, well, pleasantly
Parts of Speech
Pronoun
replaces a noun
it, he, she, him/her, they, them
Parts of Speech
Preposition
word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase modifying another word
by, over, under, with, for
Parts of Speech
Verb
action words
run, walk, shop, talk
Parts of Speech
Conjunction
words that join clauses or phrases
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (FANBOYS)
Parts of Speech
Interjection
words that express emotion
Oh! Wow! Yikes!
Standard verb forms
Simple or base form
The _____________ of the verb is the main verb in the present tense.
EX. I dance at the wedding.
The boys walk to school.
I buy clothes at my favorite store.
Standard verb forms
Third person singular present (s form)
Most verbs in English form the ____________________ by adding -s or -es to the simple or base form of the verb. These actions are in the present tense.
EX. She dances after school. The boy walks to school. The child watches TV.
Standard verb forms
-ing form
A verb ending in _______ is either a present participle or a gerund. These two forms look identical. The difference is in their functions in a sentence.
Present participle:
* He is painting in class.
* She was dancing in the street.
* I see the kids playing in the yard. Gerund – When the verb is the subject and functions as a noun.
* Painting is a fun activity.
* Eating dirt is a bad idea.
* Walking to school is easier than driving.
Standard verb forms
Past tense form
This is the basic ________ of the verb. For regular verbs, add -ed to the root form of the verb (or just -d if the root form already ends in an e). However, some _________ verbs are irregular and do not have -ed attached to the end.
EX. She danced in yesterday’s competition. EX. The kids watched the ballgame last night.
EX. The contest was held in the auditorium. EX. The workers built the house quickly.
Standard verb forms
Past participle form
The __________ is also used with had or have to form the past perfect tense.
EX. I have driven that route before.
EX. She had tried to call him before the party.
EX. I have completed my homework.
Pronoun antecedent agreement simply means
That the pronoun used in the sentence agrees with the antecedent in the sentence.
Incorrect:
When a student comes to see me, they usually want to discuss extra credit.
Correct:
When students come to see me, they usually want to discuss extra credit.
Pronoun references
Sometimes it is unclear to what antecedent the pronoun is referring. In that case, you will be tasked to identify that in a sentence.
Incorrect:
My sister brought her dog on the road trip and she chewed the seats.
There are two antecedents in this sentence, and therefore, it is not clear who the pronoun she is referring to.
Is she referring to the sister or the dog? Correct:
My sister brought her dog on the road trip and the dog chewed the seats. In this sentence, it is clear that the dog, not the sister, chewed the seats.
Subject Pronouns
I
he
she
they
we
you
who
EXAMPLES:
She went to the store to buy milk.
She is the subject of the sentence and therefore a subjective pronoun.
They rode bikes to school.
They is the subject of the sentence and therefore a subjective pronoun.
Object Pronouns
me
him
her
them
us
you
whom
Examples:
Jane went to the store to buy him some clothes.
The pronoun him is the direct object of the sentence and therefore the objective pronoun.
Sally came over to the house to see me.
The pronoun me is the direct object of the sentence and therefore the objective pronoun.
Possessive Pronouns
my
his
her
their
our
your
whose
Examples:
She went to get her clothes from the house.
The pronoun her is the possessive pronoun.
We realized it was their car in the parking lot.
The pronoun their is the possessive pronoun.
Compound and complex sentences
Simple sentence
Consists of one independent clause
EX. I went to the store.
Compound and complex sentences
Compound sentence
Consists of two independent clauses. Ensure that there is a comma between
two independent clauses in a compound sentence. The comma should be followed by a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS)
EX. I went to the store, and I bought milk.
FOR
AND
NOR
BUT
OR
YET
SO
Compound and complex sentences
Complex sentence
Consists of an independent clause and a dependent clause. When the sentence starts with a dependent clause, a comma is needed after the clause.
EX. When I went to the store, I bought milk.
Compound and complex sentences
Compound complex sentence
Consists of at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.
EX. When I went to the store, I bought milk, and I bought cheese.
Independent clause
Contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought. An _________ can stand on its own as a sentence.
EX. While we waited for the bus, (we discussed the details of our presentation.)
Dependent clause
Contains a noun and a verb but does not express a complete thought. A _________ cannot be a sentence on its own.
EX. (While we waited for the bus,) we discussed the details of our presentation.
Coordinating Conjunctions
These are the seven words that combine two sentences (independent clauses that can stand alone as they state a complete thought) with the addition of a comma. These are the ONLY seven words used to combine two sentences using a comma.
FOR
AND
NOR
BUT
OR
YET
SO
Fragments
Dependent clauses, without the independent clause in a sentence, are _________. _______ are not sentences.
Subordinating conjunctions
These are all the other conjuctions used to combine clauses. These commonly include:
* Since
* Because
* Although
* While
* Due
* When
* If
* Though
* Whenever
Semicolons
Join two independent clauses that are related. _______ are alternatives to a period or comma conjunction.
Examples:
I needed to go to the store; I was almost out of milk, egg, cheese, and bread.
He knew he would be punished for skipping school; he did it anyway.
Colons
Are used to separate an independent clause and a list. Colons can also be used to separate an independent clause and an independent clause or dependent clause that elaborates, restates, explains, or defines.
Example:
I brought all the necessities to the campsite: tent, food, fishing pole, and tackle.
Example:
We decided to focus on the most important thing: increasing student achievement.
Example:
I had lunch with the president of the university: Dr. Cunningham.
There are two main reasons to use apostrophes:
- To form a contraction such as do + not = don’t. In this case, the apostrophe replaces or stands in for the letter that is taken out when the words are combined.
- To show possession. When the noun is singular or plural but does not end in s, add ’s to show possession. When the noun is singular or plural but does end in s, add the apostrophe after the s to show possession.
Example:
Please bring Lisa’s book when you come to class tomorrow.
Lisa is a singular proper noun (there is only one Lisa here); therefore, the ’s is appropriate.
Example:
We will be going to the women’s soccer tournament on Wednesday.
Women is a plural noun that does NOT end in s; therefore, the ’s is appropriate.
Example:
Please bring all the girls’ books when you come to class tomorrow.
Girls is a plural noun that ends in s; therefore, the s’ is appropriate.
Example:
We will be going to the ladies’ luncheon on Friday.
Ladies is plural and ends in -s, and the ladies own the luncheon. Therefore, the s’ is appropriate.
When students begin to read, they acquire vocabulary skills. These skills progress in order: listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
Listening vocabulary
First students acquire _________. ________ refers to the words we need to know to understand what we hear. This is part of students’ receptive vocabulary.
When students begin to read, they acquire vocabulary skills. These skills progress in order: listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
Speaking vocabulary
Second, students acquire ________. ________ consists of the words we use when we speak. This is part of students’ expressive vocabulary.
When students begin to read, they acquire vocabulary skills. These skills progress in order: listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
Reading vocabulary
Third, students acquire _________. ___________ refers to the words we need to know to understand what we read. This is part of students’ receptive vocabulary.
When students begin to read, they acquire vocabulary skills. These skills progress in order: listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
Writing vocabulary
The last skill acquired is _________. _________ consists of the words we use in writing. This is part of students’ expressive vocabulary.
Receptive
Reading, Listening
EX. Listening to a book on tape, reading an article
Expressive
Speaking, Writing
EX. Engaging in role play, writing a poem
Students must understand that word meaning can be expressed in different ways. During vocabulary instruction, teachers should incorporate the difference between denotative and connotative meaning.
Denotation
The formal definition of a word.
Students must understand that word meaning can be expressed in different ways. During vocabulary instruction, teachers should incorporate the difference between denotative and connotative meaning.
Connotation
An idea or feeling that a word invokes in addition to its literal or primary meaning.
When teaching students to select words to achieve the maximum desired effect, have them consider the following:
- Meaning. Students can choose words for either their denotative meaning, which is the definition found in a dictionary, or the connotative meaning, which are the emotions, circumstances, or descriptive variations the word evokes.
- Specificity. This helps students choose language that is concrete and directly related to the topic.
- Audience. Determining what audience students are writing for can help determine if the writing is
meant to engage, amuse, entertain, inform, or incite.- Level of Diction. The level of diction an author chooses directly relates to the intended audience. Diction is classified into four levels of language:
1. Formal denotes serious discourse.
2. Informal denotes relaxed but polite conversation.
3. Colloquial denotes language in everyday usage.
4. Slang denotes new, often highly informal words and phrases that evolve as a result of sociolinguistic constructs such as age, class, wealth status, ethnicity, nationality, and regional dialects.
- Level of Diction. The level of diction an author chooses directly relates to the intended audience. Diction is classified into four levels of language:
Synonym or restatement clues
These context clues restate the meaning of the word using a synonym. The sentence is essentially saying the same thing twice.
EXAMPLE:
She was very (scrupulous) with her homework; she (meticulously completed every question.)
Antonym or contrast clues
These context clues state the opposite of the word in question. For example, the sentence below contains an antonym or contrast clue.
She thought of herself as (scrupulous); (however, her work lacked detail, and she often missed her deadlines.)
Inference clues
These context clues are subtle statements that drop hints to what the word means. For example, the sentence below uses inference.
She was (scrupulous) in a way that (kept her up at night obsessing over details in her emails.)
Direct instruction includes:
- Providing students with instruction in specific words that are important to their content learning or understanding of a particular text
- Teaching students general word- learning strategies that they can apply to a variety of words, such as analyzing parts of words (e.g., root words)
- Supporting students’ oral vocabulary by providing opportunities for them to use new vocabulary in discourse, cooperative learning, and role play
Tier I Words
Words are high-frequency words and used in everyday speech. These words are learned in conversation. They rarely require
direct instruction. These words are often referred to as sight words.
Examples: see, happy, what
Tier II Words
Words occur across contexts. More common in writing and everyday speech, these words enhance comprehension of a text. These words are best used for targeted explicit vocabulary instruction.
Examples: arrange, despise
Tier III Words
Words are low-frequency words. They are limited to a specific domain. They often pertain to a specific content area. They are best learned within the content of the lesson or subject matter.
Examples: molecule, mitochondria
Appropriate feedback for active listening can be done verbally and nonverbally.
Non-Verbal Signals
Appropriate eye contact (when culturally appropriate) Facial expressions
Body language
Silence
Nodding
Appropriate feedback for active listening can be done verbally and nonverbally.
Verbal Signals
“I’m listening”
Disclosures
Statements of validation Support statements Reflecting/mirroring statements
Teachers should also use language structures during listening and reading and opportunities and use new words and language structures in speaking and writing opportunities.
This includes:
- Promoting an environment where students can experiment with new vocabulary in their reading and writing.
- Encouraging students to use new vocabulary in their conversations with other students.
- Using high-level vocabulary when corresponding with students.
You will have to identify ways to help students use social cues in discourse to communicate clearly and persuasively. You will also have to identify the best way to help students develop active listening skills.
This includes teaching students how to:
- Take turns to speak.
- Be respectful to others who are speaking.
- Acknowledge others when they are speaking.
- Clarify information.
- Build on other students’ ideas when responding in discussion.
- Ask and answer clarifying questions.
- Paraphrase what other students have said before responding.
- Use evidence from the text to support discussion points.
Steps in the active listening process are as follows:
- Look at the person. Put everything else away and pay attention to the speaker.
- Listen to the words and understand how the speaker is feeling.
- Be interested in what the person is talking about.
- Restate what is being said.
- Ask questions for clarification.
- Be aware of your own opinions and feelings on the subject.
- Restate what the speaker has said. For example, “I hear you when you say, ‘I think the story is about…’”
The goal of technology integration is always to improve students’ analytical skills. However, technology can also help students enhance presentations. Teachers can help students access and use technology effectively for this purpose. Students will need experience and assistance with this. Some strategies for using technology include the following:
- Databases for research sources
- Collaborative activities using document sharing software, such as Google Docs
- Virtual field trips to build background knowledge and schema
- Class blogs to communicate personal experiences
- Digital publishing tools for yearbooks and school newspapers
Characteristics of engaging oral presentations
Effective teachers help students organize and present information in a style appropriate for the audience
and purpose. This includes the ability to:
- Sequence ideas logically. This helps students organize and present ideas in a comprehensible manner. This is done through writing and speaking.
- Use the text to present facts and relevant details to support claims. Students can have opinions about a topic, but they should be encouraged to support those opinions with evidence from the text.
- Speak clearly and at an appropriate pace. Teaching students how to think about their ideas and communicate them effectively is important.
- Use a speaking style, register, and dialect appropriate for the given context. Students must learn how to adapt their speaking style based on the audience.
- Use digital and visual media to express ideas. Teachers must help students use pictures, charts, graphs, and video that enhance their presentations.
Students must develop proper articulation when they are speaking and presenting. Articulation is the formation of clear and distinct sounds in speech. This can be practiced a variety of ways:
- The teacher can model proper articulation.
- The teacher can highlight target sounds.
- Students can practice reading aloud rhyming poems.
- Students can use repeated reading focusing on targeted sounds.
