Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research Flashcards
1
Q
Objective Measurements
A
Are the measure of an entity or behaviour that, within an allowed margin of error, is consistent across instruments and observers
2
Q
Variable
A
- Refers to the object, concept, or event being measured
- Behavioural measures
- Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
- Blood or saliva
- Self-reporting
3
Q
Operational Definitions
A
Statements that describe the procedures (or operations) and/or specific measures that are used to record observations
4
Q
Reliability
A
- Is when a measure provides consistent and stable answers across multiple observations and points in time
- Test-retest reliability
- Alternate-forms reliability
- Inter-rater reliability
5
Q
Validity
A
Is the degree to which an instrument or produce actually measures what is claims to measure
6
Q
Generalizability of Results
A
- Refers to the degree to which one set of results can be applied to other situations, individuals, or events
- Study large groups
- Sample to population
- Critical evaluation of findings
- Beware of cases of over-generalization
- “Mozart effect”
- Study large groups
7
Q
What are the 2 types of samples?
A
- Random Sample
- Convenience Sample
8
Q
Random Sample
A
Every individual of a population has an equal chance of being included
9
Q
Convenience Sample
A
Samples of individuals who are the most readily available
10
Q
Location of study
A
Laboratory vs naturalistic research
11
Q
Ecological validity
A
The degree to which the results of a laboratory study can be applied to or repeated in the natural environment
12
Q
Sources of Bias in Research
A
Researcher Bias vs Subject Bias
13
Q
Hawthorne Effect
A
A term used to describe situations in which behaviour changes as a result of being observed
14
Q
Demand Characteristics
A
- Inadvertent cues given off by the experimenter or the experimental context that provide information about how participants are expected to behave
- Clever Hans effect
15
Q
Clever Hans Investigation
A
- Isolated Hans and questioner from any spectators
- Using people other than his owner to ask the questions
- Tested Hans with blinders
- Varied whether the questioner knew the answer to the question in advance
16
Q
Social Desirability Responding
A
- Research participants respond in ways that increase the chances they will be viewed favourably
- Can minimize through assurances of anonymous/confidential questioning
17
Q
Observer Expectancy Effect
A
- Researcher’s expectations can influence subject’s behaviour
- Teacher ‘favouritism’
- ‘Bright’ rats vs. ‘dull’ rats
18
Q
Placebo effect
A
- A measurable and experienced improvement in health or behaviour that cannot be attributable to a medication or treatment
- “All in their head” or actual physiological response?
- Some evidence of physiological pain relief and changes in brain activation
- Conditioning effects
- Nocebo effect
- “All in their head” or actual physiological response?
19
Q
What are the techniques that reduce bias?
A
- Anonymity
- Confidentiality
- Inform Participants
- Single-blind Study
- Double-blind study
20
Q
Anonymity
A
Each individual’s responses are recorded without any name or other personal information that could link a particular individual to specific results
21
Q
Confidentiality
A
Means the results will only be seen by the researcher
22
Q
Inform Participants
A
Reduces participant’s anxiety and social desirability bias
23
Q
Single-blind Study
A
The participants do not know the true purpose of the study, or else do not know which type of treatment they are receiving (e.g., placebo or treatment drug)
24
Q
Double-blind study
A
A study in which neither the participant nor the experimenter knows the exact treatment for any individual
25
Sharing the Results
(Academic Journals)
1. Peer Review
2. Replication
26
Peer Review
Is a process in which papers submitted for publication in scholarly journals are read and critiqued by experts in the specific field of study
27
Replication
The process of repeating a study and finding a similar outcome each time
28
The Replication Crisis
- Chance results can and do happen
- Publication bias results in studies with affirmative evidence being more likely to be accepted into academic journals
- The original report or the failed replication
- Studies can fail to be replicated for any number of reasons
- We must base our beliefs on the entirety of the evidence
29
Weak forms of evidence
1. Anecdotal evidence
2. Appeal to authority
3. Appeal to common sense
- Tradition or novelty
4. Selective use of data
- Statistics are often inappropriately used to bolster weak arguments
30
Anecdotal evidence
An individual's story or testimony about an observation or event that us used to make a claim as evidence
31
Appeal to authority
- The belief in an "expert's" claim even when no supporting data or scientific evidence is present
- Biased expert?
32
Descriptive Research
- Descriptive data
- From observations
- No attempt to explain the 'why'
33
What are descriptive research generated from?
1. Case studies
2. Naturalistic observation
3. Surveys and questionnaires
34
Case Studies (Descriptive Research)
- Are in-depth reports about the details of a specific case
- Difficult to generalize findings
- E.g., Phineas Gage
- Drastic personality changes
35
Naturalistic Observation (Descriptive Research)
When psychologists unobtrusively observe and record behaviour as it occurs in the subject's natural environment
36
Surveys and Questionnaires
(Descriptive Research)
Participant makes the observations
37
Correlational Research
- Involves measuring the degree of association between two variables
- Correlations have:
1. Direction: Positive vs negative
2. Magnitude: Correlation coefficient (-1 to +1)
38
Illusory Correlations
- Relationships that really exist only in the mind rather than in reality
- Crime increases when the moon is full
- Opposites attract
- Gamblers on a "hot streak"
- Stereotypes
39
Experimental Group
(Experimental Research)
Receives special treatment in regard to the IV
40
Control Group
(Experimental Research)
Similar subjects who do not receive the special treatment
41
Random Assignment
(Experimental Research)
A technique for dividing samples into two or more groups
42
Experimenter Control
(Experimental Research)
Variables are manipulated
43
Independent Variable
(Experimental Research)
Presumed cause
44
Dependent Variable
(Experimental Research)
Presumed effect
45
Confounding Variables
(Experimental Research)
Variables outside of the researchers control that might affect the results
46
Between Subjects Design
(Experimental Research)
- Participants who are in different groups are compared
- A large sample and random assignment makes equal groups likely, but not guaranteed
47
Within Subjects Design
(Experimental Research)
- All participants respond to all types of stimuli or experience all experimental conditions
- Order effects
- Separating measurements in time
- Counterbalancing
48
Quasi Experimental Method
- A research technique in which two or more groups that are compared are selected based on predetermined characteristics, rather than random assignment
- E.g., Comparing men and women
- Cannot determine cause-and-effect
49
Research Ethics Board (REB)
A committee of researchers and officials at an institution charged with the protection of human research participants
50
What are the potential stress to participants ?
- Physical stress
- Cognitive and emotional stress
- Writing about traumatic experiences
- Stress usually minor; benefits need to outweigh risks
51
Informed Consent
- A potential volunteer must be informed of the purpose, tasks, and risks involved in the study, and give consent to participate based on the information provided
- Topic
- Nature of stimuli
- Nature of tasks
- Duration
- Risks
- Steps taken to minimize risks
52
Deception
Misleading or only partially informing participants of the true topic or hypothesis under investigation
- Given enough information to consent
53
Full Consent
- Can refuse participation without fear of penalty
- Given equal opportunities
- The right to withdraw
- Withhold responses
54
Debriefing
Means that the researchers should explain the true nature of the study, and especially the nature of and reason for the deception
55
When are animals used?
- Treatments cannot be applied to humans
- Heritability studies require species with short lifespans
- Examining evolutionary origins of behaviour and cognition
56
Committes oversee ethical treatment
- Given appropriate housing, feeding, and sanitation
- Studies of sick or stressed animals do not provide generalizable results
- Risk and discomfort needs to be justified and managed humanely
57
Ethical Collection, Storage, and Reporting of Data
- Data kept for 3 to 5 years
- Replication
- Honesty with data paramount
- Acknowledge conflicts of interest
- Scientific misconduct has lasting repercussions
- The unfounded panic surrounding vaccines and autism
58
Descriptive Statistics
- Are a set of techniques used to organize, summarize, and interpret data
- Frequency
- Central tendency
- Variability
59
Frequency
The number of observations that fall within a certain category or range of scores
60
Central Tendency
A measure of the central point of a distribution (mean, median, mode)
61
Variability
The degree to which scores are dispersed in a distribution
62
Standard Deviation
- A measure of variability around the mean
- 75% +_ 10%
- This means that 68% of the class scored between 65%and 85%
63
Hypothesis test
A statistical method of evaluating whether differences among groups are meaningful, or could have been arrived at by chance alone
64
Statistical significance
Implies that the mean of the groups are farther apart than you would expect them to be by random chance alone
