Psychology and the Scientific Method (LO)

Question 1

Identify the steps of the scientific method

Answer 1

1. Observation: Identify a phenomenon or problem.
2. Question: Formulate a question based on the observation.
3. Hypothesis: Develop a testable prediction.
4. Experiment: Conduct tests to gather data.
5. Analysis: Examine the results to draw conclusions.
6. Conclusion: Determine whether the hypothesis is supported or not.
7. Replication: Repeat the process to confirm findings

Question 2

Identify the qualities of good scientific hypotheses and theories

Answer 2

• Hypotheses: Must be testable, falsifiable, and specific.
• Theories: Must be coherent, comprehensive, able to predict new outcomes, and based on empirical evidence.

Question 3

Differentiate hypotheses from theories

Answer 3

• Hypothesis: A specific, testable prediction about a relationship between variables.
• Theory: A broader explanation that integrates various findings and can generate multiple hypotheses.

Question 4

Identify the features of critical thinking and scientific literacy

Answer 4

• Critical Thinking: Involves questioning assumptions, evaluating evidence, and avoiding biases.
• Scientific Literacy: Includes understanding scientific concepts, the ability to interpret data, and the ability to think critically about claims.

Question 5

Identify examples and violations of the principle of parsimony

Answer 5

• Example: Choosing the simplest explanation that fits all the data, like explaining animal behavior through conditioning rather than complex cognition.
• Violation: Proposing overly complex explanations when simpler ones suffice, like attributing simple behaviors to advanced thought processes without sufficient evidence.

Question 5

Identify and differentiate empiricism and determinism

Answer 5

• Empiricism: The belief that knowledge comes from sensory experience and evidence.
• Determinism: The belief that all events, including human behavior, are determined by previous causes.

Question 6

Identify examples of zeitgeist and descriptions of materialism

Answer 6

• Zeitgeist: The intellectual and cultural climate of a particular era, like the influence of Darwin’s theory of evolution on psychology.
• Materialism: The belief that everything that exists, including mental processes, is physical or material.

Question 7

Identify the early ideas that contributed to psychology becoming a science

Answer 7

• Structuralism (Wundt) and Functionalism (James) laid the groundwork by applying scientific methods to study mental processes.
• Advances in physiology, particularly studies on the brain and nervous system, influenced the rise of psychology as a science

Question 8

Differentiate response expansion from response compression

Answer 8

• Response Expansion: When an increase in stimulus intensity leads to a disproportionately large increase in perceived intensity (e.g., electric shocks).
• Response Compression: When an increase in stimulus intensity leads to a smaller increase in perceived intensity (e.g., brightness).

Question 9

Differentiate historical approaches to brain localization

Answer 9

• Phrenology: Early belief that different brain areas corresponded to specific traits or abilities, based on skull bumps.
• Modern Localization: The idea that specific brain regions, like Broca’s area for speech, have specialized functions, based on scientific evidence.

Question 10

Identify the medical ideas that contributed to psychology becoming a science

Answer 10

• Studies in neurology, especially discoveries like Broca’s area for language, helped establish the connection between brain structures and behavior.
• Psychoanalysis (Freud) brought attention to the influence of the unconscious on behavior.

Question 11

Identify the contributions and criticisms of Freud’s approach

Answer 11

• Contributions: Freud emphasized the unconscious mind, the importance of childhood experiences, and introduced the concepts of defense mechanisms and psychoanalysis.
• Criticisms: His theories lack empirical support, are difficult to test scientifically, and overemphasize sexual drives. Critics also argue that his methods, like dream analysis, are too subjective.

Question 12

Differentiate the influences of nature and nurture

Answer 12

• Nature: Refers to genetics and biological factors that influence behavior (e.g., inherited traits, biological predispositions).
• Nurture: Refers to environmental influences, such as upbringing, culture, and experiences.
• Current View: Most psychologists recognize an interaction between nature and nurture, where both contribute to development.

Question 13

Identify the limitations of Galton’s views on eminence

Answer 13

• Galton’s View: Eminence (exceptional ability or success) was primarily inherited, emphasizing nature over nurture.
• Limitations: He underestimated the role of environment, education, social class, and opportunity in achieving eminence.

Question 14

Identify the defining features of each historical school of psychology

Answer 14

• Structuralism: Focused on breaking down mental processes into basic components using introspection (Wundt, Titchener).
• Functionalism: Emphasized the purpose of mental processes and how they help organisms adapt to their environment (James).
• Psychoanalysis: Focused on the unconscious mind and early childhood experiences as determinants of behavior (Freud).
• Behaviorism: Emphasized observable behavior and its relationship to environmental stimuli, dismissing mental processes (Watson, Skinner).
• Cognitive Psychology: Focused on mental processes like memory, perception, and problem-solving (Piaget, Chomsky).
• Humanism: Emphasized personal growth, free will, and the inherent goodness of people (Maslow, Rogers).
• Gestalt Psychology: Focused on how people perceive and experience objects as whole patterns rather than individual components (Wertheimer, Koffka).

Question 15

Differentiate between the ‘schools of psychology’

Answer 15

• Psychoanalysis: Focus on the unconscious mind and early development.
• Behaviorism: Focus on observable behavior and the role of the environment.
• Cognitive Psychology: Focus on mental processes like thinking and memory.
• Humanism: Emphasis on personal growth and self-actualization.
• Gestalt Psychology: Focus on perception and holistic processing.

Question 16

Identify the core beliefs of behaviourism

Answer 16

• Behavior is learned from the environment.
• Focus on observable and measurable behaviors, not internal mental states.
• Conditioning (classical and operant) explains how behaviors are acquired.
• Reinforcement and punishment shape behavior.

Question 17

Differentiate behaviourism from other historical ‘schools of psychology’

Answer 17

• Behaviorism: Focuses exclusively on observable behaviors and environmental stimuli, ignoring mental states.
• Psychoanalysis: Focuses on unconscious processes.
• Cognitive Psychology: Focuses on mental processes like memory and decision-making.
• Humanism: Focuses on self-growth and free will, not conditioning.

Question 18

Apply discussion of nature-nurture relationship to your own life

Answer 18

You might have inherited certain personality traits (nature) but have also been shaped by your experiences and environment (nurture). For instance, natural musical talent (nature) can be enhanced or diminished by exposure to music and practice (nurture).

Question 19

Apply the marketing principles developed by John Watson to modern advertising examples

Answer 19

• Watson applied classical conditioning in marketing, associating products with positive emotions.
• Example: Advertisements for perfumes often pair the product with attractive models to associate the perfume with beauty and desirability.

Question 20

Identify the core beliefs of humanism and differentiate from other historical schools of psychology

Answer 20

• Humanism: Emphasizes free will, self-actualization, and personal growth. People are inherently good and capable of achieving their full potential.
• Difference from Behaviorism: Humanism focuses on personal choice and subjective experiences, while behaviorism focuses on environmental conditioning.
• Difference from Psychoanalysis: Humanism is optimistic and growth-oriented, while psychoanalysis focuses on unconscious conflict and dysfunction.

Question 21

Differentiate non-localization from mass action

Answer 21

• Non-Localization: Suggests that cognitive functions are not confined to a single area of the brain but are distributed across multiple regions. This concept argues against strict brain localization, meaning functions like memory or problem-solving do not rely on one specific brain area.
• Mass Action: A theory proposed by Karl Lashley, which states that the entire cortex works as a whole in many complex functions, such as learning and memory. The extent of impairment due to brain damage is proportional to the amount of cortex destroyed, not the specific location of damage.

Question 22

Identify the importance of findings of early brain research

Answer 22

• Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas: Identified specific brain regions responsible for language production and comprehension.
• Phineas Gage: Demonstrated the role of the frontal lobes in personality and behavior.
• These early findings showed that specific brain regions have specialized functions, contributing to our understanding of brain localization.

Question 23

Identify and differentiate the movements that contributed to the cognitive revolution

Answer 23

• Critique of Behaviorism: Behaviorism’s inability to explain complex mental functions like language and memory contributed to the rise of cognitive psychology.
• Advances in Neuroscience: Improved brain imaging techniques allowed for the study of brain activity during mental tasks.
• Development of Computers: The analogy of the brain as a computer processing information inspired cognitive models.
• Key Figures: Noam Chomsky’s critique of behaviorism and contributions to linguistics emphasized the importance of mental processes.