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L2 Cognitive S2 > reading and dyslexia > Flashcards

reading and dyslexia Flashcards

1
Q

the mental representation for comprehension

A
  1. input (speech)
  2. activate existing mental representations of sound
    –> then link to meaning
  3. output (comprehension)
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2
Q

the mental representation for comprehension - reading

A
  1. input (written word)
  2. activate existing mental representations of written words
    –> then link to meaning
  3. output (comprehension)
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3
Q

the building blocks we need for comprehension

A
  1. speech input
  2. form (phonology)
  3. syntax & morphology
  4. semantics
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4
Q

the building blocks we need for written word comprehension

A
  1. written word input
  2. form (phonology) & form (orthography)
  3. syntax & morphology
  4. semantics
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5
Q

form (orthography)

A
  • alphabet
    –> graphemes represent phonemes
    –> e.g. M.I.N.T = mint
  • logographic system
    –> characters represent words
    –> e.g. 薄荷 = mint
  • Korean language
    –> alphabetic language that looks like a logographic system
    –> letters represent words but are grouped like characters
    –> e.g. ㅂㅏㄱ ㅎㅏ-> 박하 = mint
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6
Q

do we need phonology (form) when reading?

A
  • hotly debated topic
  • most researchers agree that activation of phonological form occurs when reading
  • helps with understanding
  • occurs at an unconscious level
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7
Q

how many routes are there in terms of how we use the lexicon when comprehending written word?

A

3

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8
Q

route 1 in written word comprehension

A
  1. written word input
  2. activate letters
  3. activate phonemes (via letters)
  4. activate phonological form
  5. semantics
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9
Q

route 2 in written word comprehension

A
  1. written word input
  2. activate letters
  3. activate orthographic form
  4. activate phonological form
  5. semantics
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10
Q

route 3 in written word comprehension

A
  1. written word input
  2. activate letters
  3. activate orthographic form
  4. semantics
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11
Q

DRC: Dual Route Cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud

A
  • excitatory connections
  • excitatory + inhibitory connections between different modules
  • excitatory connections motivate a process
  • inhibitory connections stop a process
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12
Q

how can we measure the DRC?

A
  • adjust the strength of connections
  • provide input
  • process input through model
  • assess output of model against human performance
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13
Q

evaluate the DRC

A
  • computational modelling allows us to ask very specific questions
  • test the results
  • but rarely able to model all the variables and parameters at work
  • not likely to get an absolute answer
  • but excellent to test specific questions
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14
Q

how does the DRC work?

A
  • the model assumes that we have two routes to process visual words (reading)
  • the ‘non-lexical’ route converts letters into sounds to activate a phonological representation that links to meaning
  • the ‘lexical’ route activates an orthographic representation that is linked directly to meaning
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15
Q

what are 2 routes for reading according to the DRC

A
  1. lexical route
  2. non-lexical route
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16
Q

the lexical route of reading

A
  • whole world orthographic representations
  • orthographic lexicon
  • semantics
  • phonological lexicon
    –> phonological can activate orthographic and vice versa
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17
Q

non-lexical route

A
  • whole word phonological representations
    – whole world orthographic representations
  • spelling to sound correspondence
  • phonological lexicon
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18
Q

spelling-to-sound correspondence

A
  • the relationship between letters and sounds is referred to as ‘grapheme phoneme correspondence’
  • maybe key to understanding the problems encountered by people with dyslexia
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19
Q

graphemes & phonemes

A
  • a single grapheme represents a single phoneme
  • a grapheme can be made up of a number of letters
    –> 2 letter grapheme = ‘th’ in ‘that’
    –> 3 letter grapheme = ‘igh’ in ‘night’
    –> 4 letter grapheme = ‘ough’ in ‘through’
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20
Q

variety in graphemes

A
  • the same grapheme can be used to represent more than 1 phoneme (i in mint and pint)
  • a single phoneme can be represented by more than 1 grapheme (/k/ can be represented by c, k, ck)
  • lots of variety in how we represent phonemes via graphemes
  • this leads to regular and irregular words
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21
Q

regular vs irregular words

A
  • regular words = follow a set of rules that dictate how a grapheme should be pronounced
  • regular pronunciation = aligns with the graphemes most frequent pronunciation
  • e.g. mint is regular but pint is irregular
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22
Q

transparent vs opaque language

A
  • you as readers and speakers of English learn regularities implicitly
  • orthographies with a lot of regular correspondences = transparent language
  • orthography with few regular correspondences - opaque language
  • English not considered to be transparent orthography as too many irregular correspondences
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23
Q

shallow vs deep orthography

A
  • transparent = shallow
    –> the spelling of each word maps directly on to its pronunciation (e.g. Finnish or Italian)
  • opaque = deep
    –> the spelling of each word does not map directly on to its pronunciation (e.g. English)
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24
Q

mint vs pint

A
  • mint uses the non-lexical route
    –> Grapheme-phoneme correspondence relies on regular rules
  • pint uses the lexical route
    –> requires semantics
25
Q

advantages of the DRC

A
  • allows 2 routes for processing written word
  • accounts for orthographic lexicon and phonological lexicon
  • accounts for processing of regular and irregular words
  • accounts for encountering new or novel words, can be processed via grapheme-phoneme correspondence
26
Q

the self-teaching hypothesis (Share, 1995)

A
  • children ‘de-code’ words using an understanding of how letters correspond to sounds
  • existing phonological representations are accessed (used to access meaning)
  • the phonological representation is used to develop an orthographic lexicon of whole words
  • in other words they teach themselves to read
27
Q

learning to read: the self-teaching DRC

A
  • the ‘non-lexical’ route is used to decode words and access an existing phonological representation
  • contextual cues are used to select the target word from a list of spoken word candidates
    –> many spoken word candidates
    –> select the best match from context
  • exposure to print facilitates the development of an orthographic lexicon
    –> lots of reading on a regular basis necessary
28
Q

how do the reading routes change in skilled readers?

A
  • links between orthographic and phonological lexicon become less strong as reading becomes more skilled
  • can just use orthographic lexicon and semantics to gather word meaning
  • do not need the long route
    –> no longer rely on grapheme-phoneme correspondence
29
Q

difficulty in the self-teaching hypothesis

A
  • ‘de-coding’ words to access phonological representations is necessary for the development of an orthographic lexicon
  • children who struggle to link graphemes with phonemes might not be able to ‘teach themselves to read’
30
Q

how does DSM 5 define dyslexia?

A
  • difficulties in accuracy or fluency of reading that are not consistent with the person’s chronological age, educational opportunities or intellectual abilities
31
Q

how does the British dyslexia association define dyslexia?

A
  • dyslexia is a specific learning difficulty that mainly affects the development of literacy and language related skills
  • it is characterised by difficulties that may not match up to an individual’s other cognitive abilities
32
Q

dyslexia definition - Lyon et al. (2003)

A
  • difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition, poor spelling and decoding abilities that are unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities
33
Q

dyslexia definition - Ahmed et al., (2012)

A
  • difficulty decoding words results in an inability to sound out new words
  • difficulty recognising known words that results in impoverished sight word reading
34
Q

dyslexia definition - Snowling & colleagues

A
  • problems with phonological processing in understanding how speech sounds correspond to letters
  • not a visual problem
  • interaction of gene and environment that puts some children more at risk than others
35
Q

dyslexia - Dr. Ken Pugh

A
  • highlights the importance of fast and efficient decoding in word recognition
  • problems in dyslexia based on phonological processing
  • linking sounds to visual representations is crucial to reading speed and fluency
36
Q

how can we identify dyslexia?

A
  1. decoding skills
    - convert graphemes into phonemes
    –> phoneme deletion/substitution task
    –> decode pseudowords (non words)
37
Q

how can we identify dyslexia?

A
  1. lexical retrieval
    - recognise whole words (i.e. activate representations in an orthographic lexicon)
    –> rapid automatic naming tasks (RAN)
    –> word identification of regular and irregular words (should be better at regular if dyslexic)
38
Q

how can we identify dyslexia?

A
  1. verbal short term memory
    - retain information in STM
    –> word span
    –> digit span
39
Q

testing phonological awareness - De Jong & Van der Leij (2003)

A
  • longitudinal study
  • phoneme identification
    –> say ‘speech’ without the ‘s’
    –> say the first sound in the word ‘train’
  • graph shows no deficit in kindergarten
  • a problem appearing after 1 year of reading instruction that disappears by the end of primary school
40
Q

testing reading impairment profiles - Nation (2019)

A
  • learning to read data set
  • longitudinal
  • dyslexic Ps only
    –> from a sample of 242 children there were 34 poor decoders
  • worse performance on measures of phonological awareness at age 7 compared to age 5
41
Q

testing automatic word processing - De Jong & Van der Leij (2003)

A
  • rapid automatic naming task
    –> name images, letters or digits as rapidly as possible
    –> graph shows both dyslexic and weak readers are slower to name objects than the control group
  • then asked to identify words and non-words
    –> graph shows dyslexic readers name fewer objects and fewer correct words than the control group
    –> does not mean they cannot do the task, but with less fluency or speed
42
Q

the dyslexic profile

A
  1. poor phonological awareness
    - problems identifying phonemes
    - problems reading non-words
  2. slow lexical retrieval
    - rapid automatic naming task shows slow retrieval of letters
    - slower word reading for dyslexic group compared to weak & normally developing readers
43
Q

problems with reading words - the reading routes

A
  • problems reading words could be due to deficits in either the lexical or non-lexical route
  • deficits in the Non-lexical route could lead to problems in the lexical route
  • deficits in the Non-lexical route would lead to problems reading non-words
44
Q

the phonological deficit in dyslexia

A
  • initial problems linking phonemes and graphemes results in problems with word reading later in development
  • difficulties in reading later in life may be due to phonological deficit when learning to read
    –> less robust orthographic lexicon
    –> less fluidity in reading
45
Q

difficulty in de-coding words (the phonological deficit)

A
  • unlikely to be motivated to read
  • reading (exposure to print) facilitates the development of an orthographic lexicon
  • development of an orthographic lexicon facilitates ‘skilled’ reading
46
Q

de-coding and orthographic learning

A
  • de-coding skill creates opportunities for self-teaching but does not guarantee that orthographic learning will take place
47
Q

orthographic learning

A
  • weak phonological processes affect the formation of orthographic representations
  • BUT Orthographic learning may be affected independently of phonological processes
  • the result could be
    an unexpectedly poor speller’ or a subtype of dyslexia called ‘Surface’ Dyslexia
    –> typical decoding, reading speed but difficulty in spelling
48
Q

surface dyslexia

A
  • phonological awareness appears unimpaired
  • non-word reading is within a ‘normal’ range
  • irregular word reading is impaired (break is read as ‘breek’)
  • unable to distinguish between homophones (difficulty telling which of the following is a vegetable been or bean)
  • those with surface dyslexia have deficits in their lexical route
49
Q

Wybrow et al. (2015)

A
  • word reading have highlighted differences in dyslexic profiles
    –> surface vs phonological
  • gathered results for reading a list of irregular words
  • demonstrates evidence of a deficit in the lexical route
50
Q

Peterson et al. (2013)

A
  • large samples of dyslexic populations allow for tests of different profiles to be conducted
  • phonological awareness (phoneme deletion)
  • Rapid Automatic Naming (images & colours)
  • orthographic coding (which of the following is a flower? rose vs rows)
51
Q

evidence of surface dyslexic subtypes of dyslexia

A
  • Bailey et al (2004)
    –> surface dyslexics had difficulty learning a set of irregular words such that they could recognise them and read them out loud
  • Ziegler et al. (2008)
    –> found evidence of a surface dyslexic subtype in children diagnosed with developmental dyslexia compared to a chronological age control group
  • Naama Friedmann and Max Coltheart (2016)
    –> describe a variety of types of developmental dyslexia
52
Q

two routes for dyslexic subtypes

A
  1. surface dyslexia
    - deficits to the lexical Route
    - no problems reading regular non-words
    - problems reading irregular words
  2. phonological dyslexia
    - deficits to the non-lexical route
    - problems reading non-words
    - impairment of non-lexical (GPC) route
53
Q

review of 5 studies: Sprenger-Charolles & Serniclaes (2003)

A
  • existence of subtypes of dyslexia is debated
  • these results are more in line with the hypothesis that a phonological deficit is at the core of developmental dyslexia, than with the idea that a clear dissociation exists between surface and phonological profiles
54
Q

semantic processing in dyslexics

A
  • children with dyslexia have serious difficulties with forming detailed orthographic representations necessary for fluent reading
  • as a compensatory mechanism, they tend to rely more on semantic processing for reading than their typically reading peers
  • that is, stronger influences of semantics on word reading can be expected in this group compared with typical readers
55
Q

Frith & Snowling (1983)

A
  • tested children’s ability to correctly read out loud sentences that ended with a homograph (spelled the same – pronounced differently)
    –> e.g. before he made his speech he gave a bow
  • dyslexic children were more likely to correctly pronounce ‘bow’ than controls
    –> rely on semantics and context
56
Q

Nation & Snowling (1998)

A
  • tested children’s ability to correctly read regular and irregular words in isolation
  • and children’s ability to correctly read regular and irregular words after hearing a sentence
  • dyslexic readers use context to process both regular and irregular words more than normal readers (i.e. 850ms quicker for regular words in context than in isolation)
  • normal readers use context more for irregular compared to regular word reading
57
Q

semantic priming effects

A
  • a measure of semantic processing that can be used to explore these effects is semantic priming
  • if an individual has stronger predictive processing and links between semantic concepts they should have larger semantic priming effects
58
Q

semantic priming effects in dyslexics

A
  • reaction time (RT) to the word NURSE:
    -> related condition = 450ms
    –> unrelated condition = 600ms
    –> Priming effect = 150ms
  • dyslexic readers show larger semantic priming effects than normal readers
59
Q

the triangle model of reading

A
  • consists of orthographic, phonological and semantic systems
  • surface dyslexia is associated with deficits in the semantics system
  • phonological dyslexia is associated with general phonological impairment

L2 Cognitive S2 (9 decks)

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