Radicalism (1790-1819) Flashcards
at the start of the _____, what percentage of people had the vote
- 1800s: 3% of adult male population had the vote (500,000)
how many copies of Paine’s Rights of Man part 2 sell
- 200,000 in a year
LCS membership peaked at about _____ in 1795, with ____ active branches
- LCS membership peaked at about 3,000 in 1795, with 80 active branches
In ____, ________ members of the public signed a petition to say they supported the resolutions of the London Corresponding Society
- In 1793, 6,000 members of the public signed a petition to say they supported the resolutions of the London Corresponding Society
By ____, the national debt had grown to __
- By 1815, the national debt had grown to £860 million
The new laws were rarely used as fewer than ____ people were convicted under them in the 1790s
- The new laws were rarely used as fewer than 200 people were convicted under them in the 1790s
how much was Cobbett’s Weekly Political Register sold for
- WPR was sold for 2p
1815: the govt raised taxes in order to pay the interest on the national debt, so taxes accounted for __% of the governments total income
- 1815: the govt raised taxes in order to pay the interest on the national debt, so taxes accounted for 80% of the governments total income
What was the most well-known, and widely read newspaper of John Cartwright
- The Manchester Observer
When was + who founded the Hampden club
- 1812
- founded by Cartwright
What was Cobbett’s most famous quote
- “I defy you to agitate any fellow with a full stomach”
__ petitions were signed at _____, some signed by thousands were not delivered to parliament until ___
- 700 petitions were signed at Spa Fields, some signed by thousands were not delivered to parliament until 1817
How many arrests were made at Spa Fields
- 300 arrests made at Spa Fields
outline Spa Fields
- in Dec 1816
- 2 public meetings of ‘mass platform’ to put pressure on PLT for their petition
- majority of crowd (10,000) was peaceful - but the Spencians (small group of extreme Rads) broke away to riot/ loot + march to Tower of London
outline Peterloo Massacre
- Aug 1819
- public were peaceful (banners, speeches)
- authorities were violent (yeomanry on horses were sent into crowds, hacked at the crowed with their sabres, 11-15 killed, 400-700 injured)
- huge Govt backlash, radicals attracted sympathy - seen as martyr + symbol of WC oppression from an authoritarian Govt
when was the March of Blanketeers
- March of Blanketeers was March 1817
by 1819, 4…
- 4 huge meetings had been planned as a demonstration of radical w/c strength, the last being Peterloo
When were the six acts implemented
- 1819
After Peterloo, Hunt was…
- Hunt imprisoned for 2 years
Name 3 of the Six Acts made in 1819
- The Training Prevention Act
- The Seizure of Arms Act
- The Seditious Meetings Act
- The Blasphemous and Seditious Libels Act
- The Misdemeanours Act
- The Newspaper Stamp Duties Act
in 1815, __ troops returned from the battlefield looking for work
- in 1815, 300,000 troops returned from the battlefield looking for work
during the Treason Trials (_____), __ radicals were arrested due to the suspension of habeus corpus
- during the Treason Trials (1794), over 40 radicals were arrested due to the suspension of habeus corpus
when did Cobbetts Weekly Political Register start publishing
- 1802
at Copenhagen Fields, there were 2 gatherings in which __ people attended
- at Copenhagen Fields, there were 2 gatherings in which 100,000+ people attended
when trade improved after _____, the anger + support of groups like _______ ______/ skilled artisans fell away
- when trade improved after 1820, the anger + support of groups like handloom weavers/ skilled artisans fell away
when + why were the periods of economic discontent
- 1790s: due to end of Napoleonic war - many unemployed, e.g. weapon manufacturers
- 1815-19: poor harvests + bad winter
outline Dunnings Motion
- 1780
- ‘the power of the Crown has increased, is increasing and ought to be diminished’
- reduced power of the Crown
- a victory for parliamentary reformists
what happened at the March of the Blanketeers
- 1817
- aim: universal male suffrage, annual parliaments, relief for poor
- marchers planned to walk from Manchester to London where they would present a petition to the Prince Regent
- 300-500 workers, was peaceful
- was intervened near Manchester, some marchers were arrested - e.g. leader Samuel Bamford
when did the French Revolution start
- 1789
what was the significance of the outbreak of the French Rev
- had a big impact on British political life
- split people over who believed France was just ‘catching up’ with GB, those who fundamentally opposed the rev, and those who saw it as inspiration for political reform in GB
who published their ‘Reflections on the Revolution in France’ + when
- Edmin Burke
- in 1790
outline what Burke said in his ‘Reflections on the Revolution in France’
- the Govt gets their authority from custom and tradition - not the people
- he celebrates and supports the monarchy + aristocracy
what was published as a response to Burke’s ‘Reflections on the Revolution in France’
- Thomas Paine published the ‘Rights of Man’ in 1791-92
- it advocated for reform for working people (e.g. pensions, free education, universal manhood suffrage)
outline the London Corresponding Society
- formed in 1792 by John Hardy
- it was a political programme to deal with poverty + hardships of working people
- held meetings, published pamphlets, petitions
- advocated for: universal male suffrage, secret ballot, payment of MPS
- corresponded with societies across GB + in revolutionary France
- members contributed 1 penny a week
what year did Britain go to war with France
- 1793
- the F Rev becomes more violent
when was the first suspension of Habeus Corpus
- 1794
what was the significance of the 1794 suspension of habeus corpus
- 41 radicals, including Thomas Hardy, were arrested + charged with high treason
outline the Treason Act + Seditious Meetings Act
- Treason: made words, not just actions, treasonable
- Seditious: restricted meetings to 50 people
- these acts were temporary but intimidating
why were the Treason Act + Seditious Meetings Act ironic
- it was temporary, wasn’t implemented often - was used to psychologically intimidate
- was successful
in 1797-98 what did the Govt do
- increased control of media
- made the Stamp Tax + the Newspaper Regulation Act
outline the Stamp Tax
- passed in 1797
- increased taxes on printed media to make newspapers harder to afford + prevent the spreading of radical ideas amongst the WC
outline the Newspaper Regulation Act
- passed in 1798
- forced newspapers to register with the Govt with the aim of limiting their ability to publish articles criticising the Govt
- limited circulation + readership of radical press
outline Cobbett’s Weekly Political Register
- was a very popular pamphlet after 1815
- avoided stamp tax through use of pamphlets instead of newspapers - made it accessible to all
- it attacked MPs + championed WC people
outline the Hampden Club
- founded in 1812
- working men in Lancashire, Yorkshire + Midlands advocated for universal male suffrage and (when instated) abolition of Corn Laws
- organised petitions for PLT
when did the Napoleonic War (war between BR + FR) end
- 1815
- there was high unemployment esp amongst returning soldier’s/ sailors etc
outline the Corn Laws
- introduced in 1815
- put taxes on foreign wheat, meaning price of bread went up
- impacted the poorest whilst the landowners profited
what are the Corn Laws a symbol of
- CLs are a symbol of the selfish Govt dominated by landowning/ agricultural interests (emblem of aristocracy)
when was the second suspension of Habeus Corpus
- 1817
outline the Gagging Acts
- passed in 1817 in response to violence at Spa Fields
- made the temporary Treason + Seditious Meeting Acts permanent and added more restrictions
outline the Pentridge Rising
- Jun 1817
- was provoked by Govt spy ‘Oliver’
- 200 armed men marched to Nottingham, intending to march to London
- 80 arrested, 3 leaders were hung
outline the six acts
- implemented in 1819 Aug
- a response to Peterloo
- a series of 6 tough laws that allowed authorities to suppress political activity
- used to arrest leaders - e.g. Henry Hunt
outline the economy in 1820s
- economy improves due to improved trade
- the extreme econ hardship post Napoleonic war eases
- support for Rads declines
what was the aftermath of Spa Fields 1816
- leaders were arrested + put on trial
- trials exposed the use of Govt informers + spies
- e.g. ‘Castle’ was a Govt agent provocateur
what were some of the big changes happening in the late 18th century (1700s)
- growing population
- urbanisation (inc population in towns/ cities)
- industrialisation
what did the Glorious Revolution (1688) establish
- the supremacy of the parliament over the monarch
what did the Bill of Rights (1689) do
- it forced the monarch to regularly consult with parliament
outline elections
- all voting was public, leading to intimidation
- voters were also open to bribery from other candidates
define county and borough
- county = countryside
- borough = town or city
what were the 5 main complaints of people in 1815
- unemployment: with the end of the Napoleonic wars, many industries (ammunition, weapon) dried up so people were laid off (ex-soldiers, sailors)
- industrialisation: machinery took the place of skilled workers, leads to further unemployment
- food prices: were sometimes very high, leading to hunger
- raised taxes: to help pay off Govt debts, included raising food tax
- Corn Laws: law that banned the use of foreign corn, increased the price of bread
who could vote in counties
- men owning property + land worth 40 shillings
who could vote in boroughs
- burgage (owners of land plots)
- corporation (mayors/ members of a towns corporation)
- freeman (men who through marriage + inheritance, were given freedom of borough)
- potwalloper (male householders owning a fireplace )
- scot and lot (male householders who paid tax + not poor relief)
what were the key ideas of the French Rev
- anti-clericalism
- individual rights and freedom
- a more effective system of Govt (constituted monarchy + elected PLT)
outline the background on Burke’s ‘Reflections on the Revolutions in France’
- Burke wasn’t completely Conservative (supported GB reform)
- was published in Nov 1790
what were the key ideas of Burke’s ‘Reflections on the Revolutions in France’
- revolutionary change is always accompanied by violence
- Govt derives authority from custom + tradition - not consent of the governed
- freedom needs to be retrained to preserve peace between the Govt + governed - breaking of this contract would cause anarchy
- Britain’s Govt is ‘stable + wise’ - the ideal combination of monarchy, aristocracy + HofC to guarantee liberty
outline the background of Paine’s ‘Rights of Man’
- he spent 13 years in America in which he developed his ideas in support of democracy + republicanism
- he was in defence of a revolution as a means of securing freedom
- Rights of Man (Part 1+2) was written in response to Burke
- RoM was the principal text in inspiring the radical reformers
- published in 1791 + 1792
- Paine’s ideas were revolutionary as they opposed long standing ideas
what were the key ideas of Paine’s ‘Rights of Man’
- tradition + following it isn’t always a good thing - the decisions of previous generations should not be able to bind those who follow (dead should not control the living)
- Govt should protect all citizens equally
- aristocrats + inherited wealth shouldn’t rule the country as they are self interested
- the French Rev emerged from rational thought, not emotional violence (as Burke claimed)
- Paine advocated for a range of civil rights for working people - includes universal male suffrage, free education, welfare
define sedition
- sedition = to incite a rebellion through actions or words
outline the Luddite group
- were a group of skilled craftsmen (artisans who previously used hand-operated machinery)
- performed a series of night time attacks in 1810-11 on factories
- men with blackened faces destroyed machines as they feared the loss of their livelihoods due to the new machines and women and children being employed (its cheaper)
their leader was General Ned Ludd - attacks were often followed by letters, which offered millowners the chance to remove the machines to avoid future attacks - showed good organisation
- these letters were used to intimidate - far more were sent than factories attacked
what were the Luddites main complaints
- loss of work due to new machines
- increased employment of lower paid women + children in factories
what did the Luddites do in 1812
- in 1812, a series of assassination attempts were made on millowners who were associated with the introduction of these new machines
- in Apr 1812, William Horsfall (a mill owner) was shot + killed by 4 armed assailiants
were the Luddites a political group
- no, they were simply trying to get back their socio-economic class
what was the authorities’ response to the Luddite attacks
- thousands of troops were stationed in the North + Midlands to counter the Luddite threat
- machine breaking was made a capital offence - several executions took place - e.g. those involved with Horsfall’s murder
what was Britain’s position after the Napoleonic war (Battle of Waterloo) in 1815
- it was glorious for Britain; GB was established as the greatest of the Great Powers
- with the largest navy, biggest share of world trade and the most developed industry, London was the financial capital of the world
- however, this had been GB’s longest and costliest war (1793-1815). national debt + unemployment increased with the returning soldiers
what were the 3 main issues in Britain in 1815
- recession + unemployment: 300,000 troops returned looking for work. no pensions or allowances so they needed a job to survive. many workers were being laid off due to decreased demand in industries like textiles, engineering
- The National Debt (taxation): ND had grown to £861 million, Gov had to inc tax, as they accounted for 80% of the Gov’s income in 1815
- Corn Laws: the landowners/ parliament’s ban of imported foreign wheat, arguing that Britain needed to be self-sufficient in the case of another war
why would events in 1815 lead to the re-emergence of radicalism
- there would be more dislike against PLT which is also shared between more social groups (artisans/ craftsmen, ex-troops, WC)
- the poor had no political means of expressing discontent (inability to vote), so they’d join radical groups
who were 3 early influences of Radicalism
- Major John Cartwright
- John Wilkes
- John Horne Tooke
who is Major John Cartwright
- started to campaign for parliamentary reform in the 1770s
- set up the Society for the Promotion of Constitutional Information in 1784
- promoted ideas of Paine/ RoM
who is John Wilke
- an early radical MP
- one of the first radical campaigners for parliamentary reform in the 1760s and 70s
- lost his seat in 1790 - by which he was more moderate
who is John Horne Tooke
- key supporter of Wilkes
- close associate to Cartwright
what are the main aims of the LCS
- people aren’t represented in PLT - universal male suffrage
- corruption dominates the political system - fairer elections
- unfair taxes + laws, restriction of freedom
in _ , _ members of the public signed a petition saying they supported the resolutions of the LCS
- in 1793, 6,000 members of the public signed a petition saying they supported the resolutions of the LCS
to what extent could the LCS be considered ‘revolutionary’
- revolutions - like those in France - often start with peaceful demonstrations that rapidly escalate
- authorities wouldn’t have been reassured by the peaceful nature of the LCS
what was the Govt response to Radical societies such as the LCS
- many, esp the propertied classes, were keen to defend the existing system so formed ‘loyalist’ associations aiming to neutralise the threat of reformist ideas
- these organisations were given backing from the Govt + used anti-radical propaganda
what were the 3 main reasons for growing fears from loyalists
1) growth in support for radical societies + their increased organisational capacity, e.g. Society for the Friends of the People formed in 1792 which included Whig MPs
2) a perception of increased popular unrest, based on evidence from local magistrates + informers
3) the increased violence of the French Revolution, esp the execution of King Louis XVI in Jan 1793
name the laws passed + their date by Pitts Govt to counter the radical threat
- May 1792: The Royal Proclamation against Seditious Writings and Publications
- May 1794: suspension of Habeus Corpus
- Nov 1794: the Treason Trials
- Nov 1795: The Two Acts
- July 1799: The Combination Act
outline Pitt’s policy of The Royal Proclamation against Seditious Writings and Publications
- passed in May 1792
- authorised the Govt to use spies, infiltrate radical groups + open private letters
outline Pitt’s policy of the suspension of Habeus Corpus
- passed in May 1794
- enabled authorities to imprison suspects without trail
outline Pitt’s policy of the Treason Trials
- occured in Nov 1794
- 41 radicals (13 from LCS) were arrested + charged with high treason
- used the suspension of habeus corpus; the only evidence was their plan to organise a convention - argued to be a pretence to amass arms and overthrow Govt
- only Hardy, Tooke and Thelwall’s trials took place - all were acquitted + others released
outline Pitt’s policy of The Combination Act
- passed in July 1799
- prohibited trade unions + collective bargaining (negotiating terms of contract) after a series of strikes + other political agitation by workers
outline Pitt’s policy of The Two Acts/ the Gag Acts
- passed in Nov 1795
- consisted of The Treasonable Practices Act (words - spoken or written are treasonable) + the Seditious Meetings Act (prohibited meetings of 50)
- used to intimidate - no radical was ever prosecuted under them
why was radicalism largely silenced by 1795
- the new powers given to authorities from Pitt were rarely used
- their success was based in their ability to intimidate radicals - arresting their leaders, silencing their propaganda, frightening away those involved
- the return of war with France in 1793 led to a restored GB patriotism + inc participation in Loyalist societies - rads were seen as traitors/ enemies
why were Pitt’s policies a success
- radicals feared prosecution + power of govt
- their freedom was worth more than what they were fighting for
- they caused disruption as they prevented radicals from meeting, writing freely to one another, targeted leaders
- war meant there was a patriotic acceptance of the policies
was radicalism completely silenced by 1795?
- no, although it had quietened down, it didn’t disappear
- many of its supporters + ideas endured, ready to re-emerge before the end of the war with France
why were these policies named ‘Pitt’s reign of terror’
- they exercised their power by restricting freedom
- laws were extreme given their modest threat
- key freedoms + liberties were removed (e.g. discussing politics)
- Pitt is exercising too much power, ‘reign’ like a king
- reference to ‘terror’ links to revolutionary France
outline the background behind Copenhagen Fields
- in 1794 3 leaders of the LCS (Hardy, Horne Tooke, Thelwall) attempted to organise a convention to unite members of different Reformist groups
- Govt arrested the 3 leaders, accused them of high treason (encouraging people to disobey PLT/ King) + held in the Tower of London
- they ad no real evidence of their treason - apart from a spy called Groves who claimed to have heard them insult the King
- they were ruled not guilty and all 3 men returned to campaigning against the Two Acts
- the culmination of this came at Copenhagen Fields
outline Copenhagen Fields
- Oct 1795
- a peaceful public meeting in the fields outside Copenhagen House
- speeches were performed, a petition of 100,000 signatures opposing the Two Acts
what was the event 3 days after Copenhagen Fields + its significance
- the King’s coach was attacked with either bullets or stones
- was significant as the LCS was blamed for the attack as the gov linked it to the Copenhagen meeting 3 days earlier
- LCS leaders chose to distance themselves from this violence - but this didn’t prevent authorities from increasing limitations to protest (e.g. banning meetings of 50+ people)
- many potential supporters of radicals were scared off + divisions between Rads grew
outline Major John Cartwright’s role in the radical press as a form of radical agitation
- was the ‘father’ of newspaper agitation
- he was an ardent supporter of PLT reform, he travelled widely + gained first hand experience of the widespread economic hardships
- he used newspapers to convert readers to his cause - many followed suit
what are the 3 forms of radical agitation
- the radical press
- political clubs
- public meetings/ mass platform
outline William Cobbett’s role in the radical press as a form of radical agitation
- was a highly influential radical who later became an MP
- like Cartwright, Cobbett travelled around England to learn about living + working conditions - he felt WC were exploited + politically impotent (w/o power)
- he started publishing the Weekly Political Register in 1802 - it increasingly became reformist esp after 1810 (his imprisonment)
- WPR sold for 2d + read by thousands
- Cobbett’s influence is seen in the language adopted by the Radical movement - e.g. his labels used to attack those within the Govt who he felt were responsible for WC suffering
outline the radical press
- the rad press grew despite Govts efforts to prosecute those who wrote + distributed newspapers/ periodicals/ pamphlets
- through this medium, radical ideas were shared, news was conveyed from one area to another + the feeling fostered that a national movement existed rather a series of local initiatives
- many of the names of newspapers were meant to instil fear into authorities; e.g. The Republican, The Medusa, The Cap of Liberty
name 2 examples of Cobbett’s language/ labels
- ‘parasites’ + ‘taxeaters’
- used to describe those in Govt/ governing class responsible for WC suffering
outline the role of Hampden Cubs in political clubs as a form of radical agitation
- founded by John Cartwright in 1812
- most popular in industrial heartlands, e.g. Lancashire, Yorkshire, central Scotland
- payment of 1d per week (accessible to WC) - but membership was limited by fear of persecution
- aims: respectable support for reform, manhood suffrage, abolition of corn laws etc
- used subscription money to fund production of pamphlets + collected signatures for petitions
- they avoided anti sedition legislation by making their meetings public + presented as a gathering of deputies discussing constitutional reform
- faced challenges from Govt; infiltration of spies, targeting of their leaders - e.g. in 1817 several leaders in Lancashire’s HCs were arrested + imprisoned for months
outline political clubs as a form of radical agitation
- many of Cobbett’s readers attended meetings in pubs, chapels, cottages
- people gathered to read articles + pamphlets, discuss ideas
- the most known of these political clubs was the Hampden Club, founded by John Cartwright in 1812
outline public meetings/ mass platform as a form of radical agitation
- built around the right to petition to PLT
- demonstrated the extent of popular support for reform + its highly organised nature
- Henry Hunt was a popular orator
outline the role of Henry Hunt in public meetings/ mass platform as a form of radical agitation
- was a popular radical orator who spoke at Spa Fields + St Peter’s Field
- his fiery speeches made him a hero to the WC
- he didn’t want riots - he believed it was being well organised, orderly + peaceful that the masses could demonstrate their new found power/ discipline
- mass platform consisted of massive demonstrations, collecting signatures for petitions - this put pressure on Govt
how did Cobbett, Cartwright + Hunt work together as leaders of a movement
- wasn’t entirely coherent + unable to work together for a common cause
- however, their influence on the development of the newly emerging Rad movement was still significant
outline the effect of spies on clubs
- the infiltration of spies within political clubs like the Hampden Club led to the arrests of members as the spied often exaggerated their threat
- Hampden Clubs were thus unabe to act effectively after 1817
were the radicals nationally unified?
- aside form the Hampden Clubs, there was no national organisation to provide a lead on policy
- meetings were held to attempt to achieve more cohesion - HC convention in 1817
outline the effect of improvements in the economy/ trade
- radicals relied on anger from groups - e.g. handloom weavers
- when trade improved after 1820, this support fell away
outline personality clashes between leading Radicals
- Cobbett: described as vain, he personalised the political struggles he was involved in
- Hunt: described as ‘impudent + vulgar’ disliked by fellow radicals
- they had popular appeal as individuals which made them an asset - but their differences were a serious handicap, making unity impossible
outline disagreement over aims between leading Radicals
- their key disagreement was limited/ household franchise vs universal suffrage
- Cobbett + Cartwright were initially in favour of a limited franchise, but with the support from the WC, wanted ‘1 man, 1 vote’
outline disagreement over tactics between leading Radicals
- there were moderate radicals who preferred constitutional/ peaceful methods - e.g. petitions, meetings, pamphlets etc
- then there were those who favoured force - e.g. Cobbett, Cartwright + Hunt, but C+C supported the right to resist oppression by force - ‘peacefully if we may, forcefully if we must’
what was the effect of divisions within the radical movement
- differences between the several leaders was a serious handicap even though their individual energies were assets to the movement
- the lack of a central national organisation linking the different groups together made the Radicals less able to withstand the Govt’s repressive policies + maintain momentum in times of prosperity
outline their failure to achieve their objectives in terms of parliamentary reform by 1819
- didn’t achieve any of their aims (manhood suffrage, annual PLTs, secret ballots)
- the Govt overcame their tactics by creating new laws - e.g. Six Acts
outline their failure to create a nationally unified movement by 1819
- hampden clubs closed down
- majority of MC were still hostile to radicalism
- disagreements between leaders over he methods + aims of movement
- was no national organisation- was geographically disparate
outline their success in creating an awareness of parliamentary reform by 1819
- was strong support from artisans + small traders
- reform meetings attracted large crowds
- drew public attention to the issues they were protesting about, esp after the event of Peterloo - but it didn’t lead to change
- e.g. through Peterloo, LCS (est a network), Cobbett (WPR)
outline their success in learning important lessons from experiences which would set scene for future reform by 1819
- widespread geographical support was important
- widespread social support - MC + WC
- violence isn’t effective
- needed a well-lead + coordinated movement
outline the unrealistic aims of the Rads
- their aims were over ambitious + unrealistic as aristocracy are very unlikely to give power over to the WC
- aims are inconsistent between groups
