Breadth 2: Changes in representation in Britain (1780-1928) Flashcards
outline 2 examples of the corruption occurring in 1780 elections
- Robert Peel bought the country estate in Tamworth and secured his own seat as MP, and that of his son, also Robert Peel
- in pocket boroughs, voters could sell their vote for up to £10 each
outline the effects of the Reform Acts of the 1800s on the power of the Crown + Aristocracy
- the RAs extended the franchise progressively to all voters in industrial areas which were less controlled by Aristocracy
- removing rotten + pocket boroughs and redistributing seats weakened the influence of Monarchy
- the Crown lost control over the choice of PM, e.g. 1839 Bedchamber Crisis
outline the extent of crown influence in 1780
- Crown exersied influence through their appointment of Ministers
- Monarch would choose the politician who they felt was the most suitable Prime Minister
outline George III’s involvement in politics in 1780
George III (1760-1820):
- he took a very direct role in politics
- he selected the PM, influenced PLT through patronage (privilege), by promising offices/ peerages to MPs in return for political support
- in 1776, he recommended 10 new peerages
outline growing opposition to Monarch’s power in 1780
- by 1780, there was growing concern over the influence held by the King through their patronage - were accusations of corruption
outline the passing of the 1832 GRA and how that undermined the role of the Crown + aristocracy
- popular pressure - e.g. marches of 100,000 in Bristol by the BPU + media pressure from The Times contributed to its passing
- the King was pressured to agree to create new members of the HofL to push the bill through if the Lords blocked it
- both the Lords + the King had been intimidated by Grey and the reformist movement
outline economic reform/ Dunnings Motion in the 1780s
- in 1780, Dunnings Motion passed - was economical in the sense that it would reduce gov costs
- it stated that ‘the power of the Crown has increased, is increasing and ought to be diminished ‘
- although an attack on the Crown’s power, it was seen by supporters as an attack on the unpopular gov of Lord North - not George III
outline the general impact of the reform acts on political parties
- the 1832 GRA enabled more party organisation, as parties needed to register voters
- the need to contest (challenge) elections, rather than agreeing or buying pocket boroughs made party politics essential
outline the decrease in the power of the Crown 1780-1801 + Pitt’s role
- the Crown still had some influence, e.g. in 1782, King George III dismissed an allied gov between Lord North + Charles James Fox
- G III appointed Pitt as PM in 1783, who had built coalitions through negotiations + compromise (new for a PM to do this)
- this led to rise in Cabinet governments (decisions made through discussions)
- the growth of Pitt’s cabinet govs meant the Crown became less politically influential
what is a Patron
- Patron = in the context of monarchy/ PLT, is someone who uses their power to support/ promote another person
- this support takes various forms, including financial assistance, political backing, or social influence
outline 2 examples of the Crown losing control over choosing a PM
- in 1834, William IV removed Melbourne as PM of the Whigs + attempted to replace him with Peel in a Tory cabinet - this failed (Bedchamber Crisis)
- in 1880, Queen Victoria wanted to appoint Lord Hartington as PM, but was pressured by the Libs to appoint Gladstone
outline the role of political parties before 1832
- before 1832, Tories represented monarch supporters, while the Whigs had a more liberal view
- these were not parties in the sense of organisations - but loose alliances of politicians through family, friendship + shared voting
- from 1794, under Pitt, party lines became more distinct, with clear differences between views of the French Revolution
outline the Bedchamber Crisis
- Victoria agreed to appoint Peel, but P refused to accept unless the Queen’s companions (mainly wives of Whig MPs) were replaced with Tory wives
- Victoria refused + Melbourne instead created a Whig Gov
- this clearly established the boundaries of the monarchy - they couldn’t freely appoint minority Govs BUT also that PLT had limited influence over the monarchy
outline the background behind the 1911 Parliament Act
- this act was the most significant in the weakening of aristocratic power
- in 1909, Lloyd George proposed a higher income tax for the wealthy - HofL rejected the bill as it attacked the rights of the landowners (themselves)
- the Parliament Bill was then passed by Libs when they came to power in 1910 with George V’s support to limit aristocratic power
- e.g. HofL couldn’t delay or amend a financial bill and salaries were introduced for MPs - making the role accessible to WC representatives
outline the origin of the Conservative Party
- in 1834, Peel issued his ‘Tamworth Manifesto’, which stated the views of Tory candidates who supported him (Peelites)
- it promised a reform of abuses but also to protect traditional institutions, like the Church of England
- this popularised the name Conservatives - replacing the name Tories
outline the Litchfield House Compact
- the 1834 Litchfield House Compact was a deal to work together against Peel’s Conservative govt was agreed at a meeting of Whigs, Radicals and Irish MPs
- this unified the Whig Party + laid the groundwork for the Liberal Party
outline the origin of the Liberal Party
- in 1846, the Conservatives split over the issue of abolishing the controversial 1815 Corn Laws
- Peel wanted to repeal the laws, whilst most Conservatives rebelled + voted against Peel
- between 1848-59, there were 3 main groups; the Peelites (Cons MPs who supported Peel), the mainstream Conservatives, and the Whigs
- in 1859, the Peelites + Whigs formed an anti-Conservative alliance which became the Liberal Party
outline the effect of the 1867 2nd RA on political parties
- the increased size of the electorate required more party organisation
- Cons: formed the Conservative Central Office - which built a network of local party organisations called the National Union of Conservative and Constitutional Organisations
- Libs: were a little slower than the Cons, but founded the National Liberal Federation in 1877
- both parties invested more in voter recruitment, who kept accurate lists of record to ensure voters turned up
- women’s organisations, e.g. the Primrose League for the Conservatives, were used to encourage women to influence their husbands vote
outline the effect of the 1872 Ballot Act on political parties
- since patrons no longer knew who voters would select, getting out a party message took on increased importance to win votes
outline the effect of the 1883 Corrupt Practices Act on political parties
- candidates had to keep a record of all expenses - this made a clear party message more important, instead of buying voters
- Libs + Cons put more effort on local volunteer groups for organising public events - e.g. the Conservative’s Primrose League in 1883
outline the effect of the 1884 3rd RA on political parties
- the enfranchisement of WC male voters led to the emergence of the Labour Party in 1906
outline the effect of the 1918 4th RA on political parties
- the enfranchisement of millions of WC men spurred the growth of the Labour Party
- it finalised the loss of dominance of the Liberal Party, who had been split between Asquith + Lloyd George - this 1918 reform strengthen the Cons + pushed the Libs behind Labour
by _, the Conservative _ Office had _ local organisations
- by 1877, the Conservative Central Office had 791 local organisations
the Labour Party’s share of votes rose from _% to _% in the _ general election
- the Labour Party’s share of votes rose from 7% to 22% in the 1918 general election
outline the meaning of ‘Lib-Lab MPs’
- Lib-Lab MPs refers to a new group emerging within the Liberal Party
- they were labourers, often trade union officials and generally represented industrial areas
- they worked with the Liberals but voted independently on WC + Trade Union issues - thus called Lib-Lab MPs - the Lab referring to their background in physical labour
outline the formation of the Independent Labour Party
- in 1892, Kier Hardie + 2 other WC candidates were elected as Independent Labour MPs
- in 1893, the Independent Labour Party (ILP) was formed to represent WC interests
- many members were ex-Liberal MPs who were disappointed with Libs failure to accept WC men as MPs
- the ILP was seen as a socialist, revolutionary movement - however, the party was more involved in practical thinking for reform rather than theorising on socialist revolutions as other revolutionary parties were
- the word ‘socialist’ was kept out of the party name to avoid this reputation
outline the formation of the Labour Party
- the ILP grew successful + formed the Labour Representation Committee (LRC) in 1900 which unified the ILP and the TUs to connect TUism + parliamentary reform
- in 1903, the Libs made an agreement with the LRC - the Lib-Lab Pact - which avoided splitting the opposition vote against the Conservatives in the next general election (1906) + creating a strong Cons Gov
- LRC won seats + renamed themselves the Labour Party
outline the first Labour government
- the first L gov was formed in 1924 under Ramsey MacDonald
- from 1918, L’s strength grew - this was supported by the increased wartime TU membership and the increased WC male vote from the 1918 RA
- their 1924 gov was a weak minority gov of 191 seats + didn’t last a year - a fake letter to Russia, called the Zinoviev Letter, which promised the extension of communism, exacerbated fears and led to the Cons taking power at a 2nd 1924 election
- despite this, L soon surpassed Libs and by 1928, politics were primarily Cons + Labour
outline the Independent Labour Party and the Labour Party working together
- they worked very closely together
- the ILP had a strong following, whilst Labour had stronger links to TUs
- the ILP provided many of the MPs who were elected for Labour
- this worked well until 1924, when Labour formed a new gov
- the ILP were disappointed in the moderate policies of MacDonald - a division started to appear which led to the 2 parties separating in 1931
how had political parties changed by 1928
- political parties had become organised + structured groups, rather than loose alliances
- the Reform Acts forced them to organise to put across a united party message, and win votes with ideas rather than by bribery or patronage
- by the 1900s, Labour + Conservatives dominated, with Liberals behind
outline the social makeup of the House of Commons in 1780
- the HofC was made up exclusively of men from wealthy backgrounds
- some from aristocratic families, though not a peer themselves, or sons of peers
- MPs had no salary, and so had to be wealthy - a private incoem was essential
- there was a property quaification of £600 per year for county MPs + £300 for borough MPs
in _ , an MP paid £_ (£_ today) in bribes and campaigning costs
- in 1830, an MP paid £30,000 (£1.5m today) in bribes and campaigning costs
in _, about _% of members of the House of Commons were sons of _
- in 1780, about 20% of members of the House of Commons were sons of peers
outline the affect of the 1832 + 1867 Representation of the People Acts on the social composition of the House of Commons
- they did little to change the social comp of the HofC
- in 1833, 217 MPs were sons of peers or baronets - this only fell to 180 by 1865
outline the affect of the 1858 Repeal of the Property Qualifications Act on the social composition of the House of Commons
- this removed property qualification + made the HofC accessible to the middle classes
- it didn’t provide a salary, and so only those with a private income could afford to be MPs - but it opened up membership of PLT to a wider social circle
- there was a small increase in the number of MPs from less wealthy/ industrial/ commercial backgrounds
outline the affect of the 1884 Redistribution Act + 1885 Redistribution Act on the social composition of the House of Commons
- the increased number of urban constituencies meant that MPs of an industrial background outnumbered landed MPs - for the 1st time
- with the growth of the WC vote, a small number of WC MPs + Libs were elected - later becoming the Labour Party
- there were only 13 Labour MPs in 1885, but were 29 in 1906 - they were funded by TUs + Labour Party, who paid them up to £200 per year
- however, the lack of gov salaries meant that this number was limited, with little impact on the social comp of HofC
outline the affect of the 1911 Parliament Act on the social composition of the House of Commons
- this act introduced wages of £400 per year for MPs, allowing more WC + MC candidates to stand for election
outline the change of the social makeup of the House of Commons by 1928
- MPs in 1928 were mainly from urban or commercial M+UC backgrounds rather than landowners
- MPs represented a more evenly distribution in a geographical + demographical sense - compared to the unbalanced representation of 1780
- there were men of WC backgrounds as MPs
- there were a small number of female MPs by the 1920s
outline the affect of the 1918 Representation of the People Act on the social composition of the House of Commons
- supported by the WC votes, Labour won 57 seats in 1918 for WC candidates + 151 seats by 1924
- the enfranchisement of women led to female MPs - this was a very small change, since only 12 had been elected as MPs by 1928
outline the continuity of the social makeup of the House of Commons by 1928
- by 1928, majority of MPs were from wealthy backgrounds
- majority of MPs were male
- among the 12 elected women in the 1920s:
- majority were wealthy - 5 had titles (countess, duchess, viscountess)
- the first 3 women were all elected into constituencies where their husbands were previously MPs
list the 6 monarchs in order of reign
- George III (1760-1820)
- George IV (1820-1830)
- William IV (1830-1837)
- Victoria (1837-1901)
- Edward VII (1901-1910)
- George V (1910-1936)
outline George III as monarch
- in power 1760-1820
- he disliked reform + the reforming Whigs and wanted to be very involved in politics
- the loss of the American colonies after 1776 was a crisis from which he strove to retain Crown power
- he choose the PM in the 1780s - was successful + resulted in Pitt’s Ministry
- the rest of his reign is associated with Napoleonic Wars + re-emergence of Radicalism after Waterloo
- but he was incapacitated for most of the last 20yrs of his reign + died
outline George IV as monarch
- in power 1820-1830
- son of George III
- was influential for 20yrs before he gained the throne due to fathers illness
- he meddled in politics - favoured Tories + strongly opposed to reform and Catholic Emancipation
- his death in 1830 triggered election which helped form Whig Ministry - lead to 1832 GRA
- GIV described as selfish, decadent + dissolute
outline William IV as monarch
- in power 1830-37
- brother of George IV - seen as weak + ignorant
- continued the huge expenditure from brother + accumulated huge Crown debt
- role in 1832 GRA: agreed to Greys demand to create new peers
- he installed Peel for the 100 days ministry in 1834 - the last time a monarch chose a PM against PLT
outline Victoria as monarch
- in power 1837-1901
- took over from 2 unpopular + ineffective Kings
- monarchy appeared in danger after the uncoordinated coordination reported by press
- but, publish support felt in the Golden Jubilee 1887 + Diamond Jubilee 1897 - popularity of both monarch and monarchy was restored
outline Edward VII as monarch
- in power 1901-1910
- son of Victoria
- wasn’t very involved in politics
- his reign was associated with foreign policy (army, good relations W/ France)
- supported 1884 3rd RA, but opposed female suffrage + Irish Home Rule
outline George V as monarch
- in power 1910-36
- inherited the Parliament Act + Home Rule crises
- his willingness to create new peers to ensure the passing of the Parliament Act was crucial
- after WW1, he remained concerned about rising hostilities in Ireland + socialism, but took a progressive approach - e.g. forged relations with moderate Labour politicians + expressed sympathy with workers from General Strike
- this represented a significant change in the monarchy’s approach - more accessible + understanding - that would continue after him
outline evidence of the power of the Crown in pre-1780
- Bills required consent of Monarch
- the Monarch had ‘prerogative’ powers to ensure order - e.g. power to appoint PM, Ministers
- Monarch could determine the exact timing og elections
- Crown controlled a large number of rotten boroughs - 100 in 1800
outline evidence of the power of the Crown in 1780-1820 (George III)
- George III was able to keep Ministers in office even when they’d lost support of the House
- Dunnings Motion 1780: showed the continued strength of royal influence as the bill failed
outline evidence of the declining power of the Crown in 1780-1820 (George III)
- Dunnings Motion 1780: showed increasing opposition to Crowns power even though it wasn’t passed
- after the 1780s, the means by which a King could influence the HofC were gradually limited
outline Peel’s 100 Day Ministry
- in 1834-35 William IV installed Peel as PM, but Peel was forced to resign in favour of Melbourne after failing to secure sufficient support
- he was in power for 100 days
- this was the last time a monarch chose a PM against PLTs wishes
outline evidence of the power of the Crown in 1820-37 (George IV + William IV)
- William IV dissolved PLT 2x before its time + 3x he dismissed ministries he didn’t like
outline evidence of the declining power of the Crown in 1820-37 (George IV + William IV)
- in this period, royal authority declined
- William IV was given an ultimatum by Wellington over Catholic Emancipation
- also William IV was pressured into accepting the 1832 GRA + agreed to use his prerogative powers to create new peers
- after 1832, became increasingly accepted that the Crown couldn’t interfere in elections - Royal powers in HofC began to ebb
- 100 Day Ministry is another example
outline evidence of the power of the Crown in 1837-67 (Victoria)
- continued power is evident in the Bedchamber Crisis 1839
- in 1851, Victoria was able to get Palmerston dismissed
- Victoria decided Aberdeen should become PM in 1652
- she strengthened her relations with Cabinet Ministers to ensure she wasn’t solely reliant on PMs
outline evidence of the declining power of the Crown in 1837-67 (Victoria)
- over this period it became clear that the Monarch’s power to appoint PMs was declining due to parliamentary reform + power of the parties
outline the Bedchamber Crisis
- in 1839
- Peel’s appointment as PM was resisted as Victoria refused to accept Peel’s request that she replace the several ladies in waiting who were wives of Whig Ministers with Tories - as tradition stated
- Victoria wanted Melbourne to stay + was motivated by the belief that she should be in control
outline evidence of the power of the Crown in 1867-1901 (Victoria pt2)
- in 1894 she appointed Lord Rosebery as PM.
- when parties were weak + had unclear leadership, Victoria could choose PMs + influence events - e.g. the 1850s
outline evidence of the declining power of the Crown in 1867-1901 (Victoria pt2)
- 1880 election: Victoria wants Hartington, but the Liberal Party prefers Gladstone as PM - party gets its way
- even though she insisted to be consulted + give her opinion on gov policies, decisions were made without her - e.g. franchise extension
- as her reign continued, her influence declined - due to her ageing + growth of parties
- when parties were stable + in clear majorities, she had little control
outline evidence of the power of the Crown in 1901-28 (Edward VII + George V)
- George V’s consideration of using the Royal Veto in 1914 over Home Rule shows that the power of the Crown could have been used to a greater extent
- this period should that in times of weak parties + unclear leadership, a monarch could have significant influence
outline evidence of the declining power of the Crown in 1901-28 (Edward VII + George V)
- after Victoria, there was no resurrection of monarchical political power - mainly due to growing efficiency of parties
- the Monarchs power over choice of PM was effectively just symbolic - neither EVII or GV made a real effort to influence politicians as Victoria had
what was the composition of the House of Commons like in 1780
- was dominated by aristocrats + landowners, with MPs coming from wealthy backgrounds - e.g. merchants, bankers
what was the impact of the 1832 GRA on the social makeup of Parliament
- the abolition of rotten boroughs gave more representation to MC men in PLT due to loss of power of aristocracy
- but WC representation was still very low
what change occurred in Parliament due to the 1867 + 1884 Reform Acts
- both acts expanded the electorate, allowing more business owners + professionals into PLT
- but aristocrats remained dominant
what was the significance of the 1911 Parliament Act for MPs
- by introducing salaries for MPs, it made it possible for WC men to serve in PLT without private wealth
how did the representation of the working class in Parliament change by 1928
- by 1918, 20 Labour MPs had WC backgrounds
- by 1928, this number increased further - reflecting greater political inclusivity
what role did trade unions play in increasing WC MPs
- they provided financial support, allowing WC candidates to stand for election + sustain themselves in Parliament
what continuity remained in terms of the social composition of Parliament
- Wealth still played a major role, and the upper classes maintained influence despite the rise of Labour MPs
how did the 1909 Lib-Lab Pact benefit the Labour Party
- it helped Labour gain parliamentary representation with the Liberals support
- helped Labour establish itself as a political force
what is the Lib-Lab pact
- formed in 1903
- the Lib Lab Pact was a political alliance between the Liberal Party + the Labour Representation Committee (later the Labour Party)
- it aimed to prevent the Conservative Party from winning elections
What was the significance of the 1924 Labour government
- It was the first Labour-led govt in Britain
- marked a major shift in political power away from the Liberals
- although, it only lasted less than a year due to lack of majority
What was the role of the House of Lords in resisting political reform
- it blocked several reform bills - e.g. the 1909 People’s Budget
How did the 1867 Reform Act change electoral influence
- it expanded the franchise to urban WC men
what was a key cause of the decline in aristocratic power in the late 19th century
- economic decline of landowners due to free trade policies
outline the effect of the 1885 Redistribution Act on aristocratic influence
- it weakened aristocratic control through;
- eliminating pocket boroughs
- creating equal sized constituencies
what caused a split in the Conservative Party in 1846
- the repeal of the Corn Laws by Conservative PM Peel
- this created the Peelites (those who supported Peel + his repeal of CLs) and the Protectionists (who opposed it)
how did Disraeli strengthen the Conservative Party’s appeal in the 1870s
- he promoted social reforms - e.g. the Public Health Act (1875)
What was the main issue that divided the Liberals in the 1880s
- Irish Home Rule
- it split the Liberal party into Gladstonian Liberals (supported IHR) + Liberal Unionists (opposed IHR)
who emerged as the key leader of the Conservatives after their split in 1846
- Benjamin Disraeli
what were the 2 dominant political parties in Britain in 1780
- with the development of the 2 party system;
- Whigs: supported reducing crown patronage + political reform
- Tories: more conservative + loyal to the Crown and Church of England (preserve status quo)
How did the 1886 Liberal Unionist split impact British politics
- the split weakened the Liberal Party as some members, led by Chamberlain, joined the Conservatives in opposition to Irish Home Rule
- this strengthened the Conservative Party
How did the role of leadership influence party changes between 1780 and 1846
- Leaders like William Pitt the Younger (Tories) strengthened government control
- whilst Charles Grey (Whigs) pushed for reform - shaped party directions
how did World War I affect the political landscape in Britain
- led to increased govt intervention in society + economy
- it boosted support for Labour + weakened the Liberals, who struggled with internal divisions
How did Conservative dominance continue between 1886 and 1928
- Conservatives adapted to political changes by forming alliances - e.g. with Liberal Unionists
- they also passed electoral reforms which expanded their voter base
what was the Catholic Emancipation Act + its affect on the Tory Party
- the Catholic Emancipation Act in 1829 allowed Catholics to be MPs + led to more Catholic MPs in PLT
- this split the Tory Party - some supported it (moderates) whilst others saw it as a betrayal of traditional values (ultras)
outline the formation of the Liberal Party
- formed in 1859
- is formed out of the Whigs, Peelites, Radicals and Irish MPs
what impact did the 1832 Reform Act have on political parties
- it forced both parties to modernize; as the electorate expanded it made elections more competitive and increased the influence of the MC
- e.g. the Conservatives’ Carlton Clubs (raised money + support) + registration societies
outline the formation of the Conservative Party
- formed in 1834
- formed from the Tories under Peel
What factors led to the development of a more structured party system by 1846
- electoral reforms
- ideological conflicts
- economic changes - e.g. industrialization
- increased voter participation
in _, _% of MPs were landowners
- in 1832, 75% of MPs were landowners
what are 3 criteria for measuring the changes in political parties
- ideology: their values, left/ right, pro/anti-status quo etc
- organisation: how the party is organised
- appeal: which groups they are trying to attract
which groups were appealed to the Whigs and Tories
- Whigs: bankers, non-conformists, supporters of reform
- Tories: Anglicans, agricultural interests
what did the Tories establish following their electoral decline in early 1830s
- the Carlton Club in 1832
- Whigs followed suit in 1836 with the Whig Reform Club
- these organisations provided national coordination + organisation, improved voter registration
outline the role of Joseph Chamberlain
- Chamberlain was a pioneer in local Liberal Party organisation in Birmingham
who enhanced Conservative Party organisation after their electoral defeat in 1868
- Sir John Gorst
outline the Tamworth Manifesto
- published in 1834
- was Peel’s political manifesto (statement) which outlined the foundations of the Conservative Party
- this marked the shift from the Tory to Conservative Party + helped Peel win popular support
outline the repeal of the Corn Laws
- repealed in 1846 by Peel (Conservative)
- split the Conservative Party into the Peelites vs Protectionists
- Corn Laws were originally passed in 1815
- were repealed due to the Irish Famine - unrest was growing - needed cheap wheat
outline the appeal changes of the Conservatives after the 1867 RA
- rise of One Nation Conservatism (social cohesion) under Disraeli
- this is exemplified in the passing of social reforms -e.g. 1875 Public Health Act
- this was to embrace the new voters in the boroughs
what was the response of the Conservatives after their failure in the 1868 election
- established NUCCA in 1867 + a Central Office in London in 1870
- Gorst increases number of local associations + coordinates party organisation
- on a local scale, est the Primrose League 1883 (for women)
why are the Liberal Party in ‘political wilderness’ in 1886-1928 + their overcoming of it
- the party splits over Ireland sees 78 Whigs leaving to join Conservatives in 1880s
- are negatively affected by single member constituencies (est by Salisbury in 1885) which means they can no longer claim seats for both Rads + Libs
- Liberal dominance returns in 1906 when they introduce new reforms, creating New Liberalism
outline the Hodgkinson Amendment
- was an amendment made to the 1867 2nd RA
- Gladstone unknowingly accepted Hodgkinson’s proposal to allow all ratepayers in boroughs to vote
- it added 500,000 voters
by _, the number of MPs from _ + _ backgrounds outnumbered those of the landowning elite
- by 1885, the number of MPs from industrial + commercial backgrounds outnumbered those of the landowning elite
outline the effects pf 1872 + 1883 on the power of the crown/ aristoracy
- the 1872 Act: reduced the power of local aristocratic patrons - esp in counties
- the 1883 Act: limited the use of money/ bribery by aristocrats in influencing elections - made it more accessible for non-aristocratic candidates
