Quiz1 Flashcards
Range
The difference between the lowest and highest
- provide rough estimate of variation
- if have couple of extreme scores, will create a false large range / variation
- better method: standard deviation
Skewed Distributions
Happens due to few extreme data points
- this is why if the mean is reported, the report can be inaccurate
ex) Income data – billionaires skew the data
Scatterplots
A graphed cluster of dots – good for showing correlation between two variables
- slope represents the relationship between two variables
- amount of scatter shows strength of correlation
- perfect positive correlation, no relationship, perfect negative correlation
Bar charts
- compare categories
- show variation in subgroups
Histograms
- shows distribution of numeric values of variables
- shows frequency of variables
Mean
Arithmetic average; total sum / number of scores
Median
Midpoint; 50th percentile
Mode
Most frequently occurring score or scores
Standard Deviation
A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
- useful standard for measuring how much scores deviate from one another
- can know if data packed together or dispersed
Normal curve
Bell shaped distribution
- most cases fall near mean, fewer in either extreme
- 68 percent fall within one standard deviation
- 95 percent fall in two standard deviations
- 97.5 = 3 standard deviation
Regression to the mean
Tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back toward the average
- since unusual scores can be a combination of different factors, if tested again, the score will likely be more regular
- can lead to illusionary correlation ( ex. after a poor performance, coach will think the scolding actually worked when the team preforms okay again in the next game)
Statistical significance
Statistical statement of how likely it is that result occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the populations being studied (doesn’t mean it’s a big effect though)
- difference is statistically significant: If sample’s difference reflects a true population difference
- multiple observations have low variability = statistically significant
- p-value: number describing how likely it is that your data would have occurred by random chance
Sample size
Large sample size minimize chance of extreme outcomes
Representativeness of sample
Random and representative samples; not just from exceptional and memorable cases
- research rarely randomly samples whole population ; hard to do
Empirical approach
Evidence-based method that draws on observation and experimentation
- Not introspection
- requires scientific attitude
- James Randi
- Hume
Descartes
Dualism
Believes physical body was container for non physical (the mind)
Hard problem of consciousness
Scientific Attitude
curiosity: can prediction be confirmed
skepticism: sift reality from fantasy
humility : be willing to be surprised by new ideas
Critical thinking
examine assumptions, appraise source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, assesses conclusions
Nagel
What is it like to be a bat?
Hobbes
Materialism
- everything is a mechanical system
- the mind is what the brain does
Structuralism
Used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind
Wundt
- structuralist
- created first psychology experiment / lab (reaction time)
- wanted to measure “atoms of the mind”
- used analytic introspection to try to find building blocks of the mind
- experience is combination of sensations
James
- functionalist
- influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution
- adaptive processes
- studied emotions, memories, willpower, habits, stream of consciousness
Functionalism
Exploration of how mental and behavioral processes function – how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish
Frued
Freudian Psychology
- ways our unconscious mind and childhood experiences affect behavior and personality
- Unconscious and conscious
- Id: basic desires (had since baby)
- Superego: values (after develop morals)
- Ego: mediator between superego and id –> decision making
Pavlov & Watson
Behaviorism
Pavlov
- classical conditioning (stimulus-response)
- something that naturally happens paired with something that does not naturally happen
- learned experience
- dogs salivate when the research assistant comes in
John Watson
- predict behavior through study of observable behavior
- present boy with comforting item but then when given item a loud bar hitting sound –> boy started to cry when shown item
Skinner
Behavioralist
- conditioning chamber to explaining learning and operant conditioning (use rewards or punishments to modify behavior)
Chomsky
Resistance to behaviorism
Human language
- children form sentences they never heard before –> so can’t be stimulus-response
Late 1800s
Structuralism, functionalism, empirical approach
Early 1900s
Psychoanalysis and behaviorism
Resistance to behaviorism
Late 1900s
Cognitive revolution
- cognitive psychology
- cognitive neuroscience
Study of mental processes
Cognitive psychology:
- how we perceive, process, and remember information
- how thinking and emotion interact in anxiety, depression, and other disorders
Computers; computational models
Humanistic psychology
Focus on growth potential
- our need for love, acceptance, environments that nurture personal growth
Evolutionary psychology
Study of evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
- nature vs nurture
Positive psychology
Study of human flourishing, with goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive
Early 2000s
Imaging and neuroscience
Biopsychosocial approach
Integrated approach that incorporates 3 levels of analysis: biological, psychological, social-cultural
Types of psychology careers
Basic research: build psychology’s knowledge base
Applied research: tackle practical problems
Counseling psychologist: help cope with challenges
Clinical psychologist: assessing and treating people with disorders
Psychiatrist: medical doctors who can prescribe drugs
Community psychologists: create healthy environments
Levels of analysis
Different ways to analyze a given phenomenon
Biological : genetic traits, genes responding to environment
Psychological : learned fears, emotional responses
Social-cultural : cultural, societal, family expectations
Study skills: SQ3R
Survey: read main points
Questions: create study questions
Read: read section and answer Qs
Recite: recite main ideas
Review: main points and section questions
Empiricism
Knowledge is acquired through experience
Nativism
Knowledge is innate rather than aquired
Theory
Explains behaviors or events by offering ideas that organize observations
- imply predictions that anyone can use to check the theory or to derive practical applications
- stimulate further research that leads to a revised theroy that better organizes and predicts observations
Hypothesis
A testable prediction
- supports a theory or leads to revision
- a hypothesis should be: logical, testable, falsifiable and positive
Operational Definitions
Carefully worded statement of exact procedures used in a research study
- what is it?
- how is it assessed?
- for whom is it applicable
Data Analysis
Theory Revision
Feynman’s thoughts on scientific method
You guess then test it; you can’t “prove” anything
Correlation
Measure of extent two factors vary together; how well one factor predicts the other
Correlation coefficient: statistical index of relationship between two thing (-1.00 to +1.00)
Positive correlation (0 to +1.00): direct relationship
Negative correlation (-1.00 to 0): inverse relationship
*Correlation points towards predictions and reveal relationships; but imperfect ones
*Correlation does not prove causation
Experiment
Research method in which one or more factors are manipulated and then the effects on some behavior or mental process is observed
- experimental group: ppl receive the treatment
- control group: does not receive treatment
- random sampling: create representative survey sample
- random assignment: equalizes experimental & control group
Quasi-experiment
Involves variables you can’t manipulate, or that cannot be randomly assigned
- no random assignment
Naturalistic observation
Recording natural behavior of many individuals
- does not control all factors
- often involves new technology (“big data”)
- describes and illuminates but does not explain behavior
Meta-analysis
Statistical procedure for analyses of multiple study results
- finds universal principles
Survey
Ask people to self-report behavior or opinions of particular group
- wording effect: wording can affect results
Case study
In-depth analyses of individuals or groups
- suggests fruitful ideas for future research
- doesn’t provide generalizations or universal truths
ex. Phineas Gage and the metal bar
Sampling
Random sample: each member in population has equal chance of inclusion
Representative sample
Large sample size
ex. “small rural communities have the highest incidence of Kidney Cancer” –> but small rural communities also have the lowest incidence of kidney cancer
Replication
Experiment should be replicable; replication = confirmation
- repeat original observations with different participants, materials, circumstances
- increases reliability confidence of experiment / finding
Pre-registration
Publicly communicate planned study design, hypotheses, data collection, and analyses
- transparency prevents later changing hypotheses to fit data
- important for exploratory research (gather data and seek patterns that inspire theories) which can be tested with confirmatory research
Reporting of null findings
Double blind procedure
Procedure in which both research participants and staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo
- find accurate results without placebo effect
Ethical considerations
Animal testing: need to provide humane living conditions
Ethics code of APA and BPS
- obtain potential participants’s informed consent to take part
- protect participants from greater-than-usual harm and discomfort
- keep info about individual confidential
- fully debrief people : explain research afterwards
What are good research protocols?
Replication, preregistration, reporting null findings, double blind procedure, ethical considerations
Independent variable
The factor that is being manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
Dependent variable
The outcome that is measured;
the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated
Confounding variable
A factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results
- random assignment helps reduce
Levels of a variable
Demand characteristics
Aspects of observational setting that can cause people to behave as they think someone else wants or expects
Hindsight Bias
Tendency to believe, after learning an outcome
- “I-knew-it-all-along”
Placebo effect
Experimental results caused by expectations
- ex. thinking that you are getting treatment can make it feel like you are getting better
Overconfidence
People tend to be more confident than correct
Perceiving order from random events
People tend to find patterns in random data
- random sequences often don’t look random
Bias
Start to accept info that fit bias instead based on evidence
Post-truth: people’s emotions and personal beliefs will often override their acceptance of objective facts
causes
- false news
- repetition; more repeated info
- availability of powerful examples
- echo chamber of the like-minded
Problems with survey data
Things to consider:
- standardized: needs to be like normal curve (not like yelp which people mostly give 0 stars or 5 stars)
- reliable: can be able to get same scores again
- valid: measures what is it meant to measure
Predicting everyday behavior
Experiments’s purpose is not to re-create exact behaviors in everyday life
- resulting principles, not specific findings, in experiment help explain everyday behaviors
Neuroplasticity / neural reorganization
Brain’s ability to change, esp during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
ex. pianists have larger than usual auditory cortex area
Gilial cells
“Glue cells”
Cells in nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
- play a role in learning, thinking, and memory
- in more complex brains, proportion of glia to neurons increase
Neurons
Nerve cell; basic building block of nervous system
Dendrite
Branches around neuron that receives info and conducts it to cell body
Axon
Single lengthy fiber that passes messages to other neurons or muscles or glands
Neurogenesis
Process which new neurons are formed in the brain
- happens part to stem cells (special cells that can developinto different types of cells like brain cells)
Action potential
Neural impulse (neuron sends messages through)
- a brief electrical charge that travels down the axon
- if excitatory signal exceed threshold, action potential triggered –> all or nothing
- rate of firing is measured : low stimulus = slow firing; high stimulus = fast firing
Role of Myelin
Encases axon –> allow for greater transmission speed
- crucial for neural efficiency, judgment, and self-control
- if degenerates: multiple sclerosis results; communication to muscles and brain region slows
- insulator for “passive” electrotonic transmission
- signal “jumps” between gaps
Synaptic transmission
Meeting point between neurons (synapse) have a small gap (synaptic gap)
- when action potential reaches axon’s end, it sends messages (neurotransmitters) between synapse
- excitatory synapses: receiving dendrites increase the likelihood of a cell firing
- inhibitory synapses: receiving dendrites decrease the likelihood of a cell firing
- how do dendrites know which neurotransmitter to receive –> neurotransmitter and receptor sites are like lock-and-key
Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that cross synaptic gap between neurons
- when released, neurotransmitters travel across synapse and bind to receptor site (like key fits lock)
- unlock tiny channels at receiving site
- excess neurotransmitters drift away, broken down by enzymes, or reabsorbed by the sending neuron (reuptake)
- different neurotrasmitters (ex. ACh : learning, memory, muscle action)
Agonist
A molecule that increase neurotransmitter’s action; excites neurons’ firing
- increase production of neurotransmitters or block reuptake
Antagonist
A molecule that decreases neurotransmitter’s action by blocking production or release
- occupies receptor site and block neurotransmitter’s effect
Endorphins
Natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
Sensory neurons
Neurons that carry incoming info from body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
- PNS
Motor neurons
Neurons that carry outgoing information from brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
-CNS
Interneurons
Neurons within brain and spinal cord
- communicate internally and process info between sensory inputs and motor outputs
- CNS
Nervous Systems
Communication network in body
Central nervous system: brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system: gathering info and transmitting CNS decision to other body parts
Somatic nervous system
Component of PNS
- voluntary control of skeletal muscles
- tap on shoulder and turn head
- have sensory and motor neurons that connect CNS to teh rest of the body
Autonomic nervous system
Component of PNS
- controls glands and interanal organ muscles
- glandular activity, heartbeat, digestion
Sympathetic nervous system
Part of autonomic nervous system
- arouses and expends energy
- accelerate heartbeat, raise blood pressure, make you alert
Parasympathetic nervous system
Part of autonomic nervous system
- conserves energy
- calm you down
Reflexes
Automatic responses to stimuli
- sensory neuron –> interneuron in spinal cord –> send motor neurons
- reflex pathway runs through spinal cord and right back –> act before brain can react
Endocrine System
Body’s “slow” chemical communication system
- a set of glands and fat tissue that secret hormones into blood stream
Hormones
Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands
- travel through bloodstream, and affect other tissues
- influence interest in sex, food, and aggression
Glands
Adrenal glands: ANS orders adrenal glands to release epinephrine and norepinephrine (adrenaline and noradrenaline) when in danger
Pituitary gland (master gland): located in core of brain; growth hormone and oxytocin released
Feedback system
ex. Brain –> pituitary –> other glands –> hormones –> body and brain
fMRI
Technique for revealing blood flow, which shows brain activity, by comparing successive MRI scans
- shows brain function and structure
MRI
Technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft issue
- good for detecting location and showing brain anatomy
- bad for timing of brain activity
- BOLD: blood oxygen level dependent
EEG
An amplified recording of waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface
- measured by electrodes placed on scalp
- good for measuring timing of brain activity
- bad for location of brain activity
DTI
By capturing the direction and magnitude of water diffusion, DTI enables the visualization of neural pathways and connectivity, making it an indispensable tool for understanding brain anatomy, function, and pathology.
PET
Detects brain activity by displaying where radioactive form of glucose goes while performing a given task
Single electrode recording
Technique that uses an inserted microelectrode to measure the electrical activity of a single neuron
MEG
Brain-imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from brain’s natural electrical activity
- use head coil thats like salon hairdryer
- measures speed and strength of magnetic fields caused by neurons creating electrical pulses
Dorsal / ventral
Dorsal: top
Central: bottom
Anterior / posterior
Anterior: in front of
Posterior: behind
Medial / lateral
Medial: toward the center
Lateral: away from the center
Hindbrain
Contains brainstem structures
- essential survival functions: breathing, sleeping, arousal, coordination, balance
Brainstem
Central core of brain , beginning where spinal cord wellss as it enter skull
- responsible for automatic survival functions
- part of hindbrain
Cerebellum
Rear of the brainstem
- processes sensory input, coordinates movement output, coordinate balance, enable nonverbal learning and memory (ex. soccer player controlling ball)
- part of hindbrain
Medulla
Brainstem’s base
- controls heartbeat and breathing
- part of hindbrain
Midbrain
Connects hindbrain with forebrain
- controls some movement and transmits info for seeing and hearing
Forebrain
Manage complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, voluntary motor activities
Thalamus
Sensory control center (except smell)
- located on top of brainstem
- directs messages to sensory receiving areas in cortex
- transmits replies to cerebellum and medulla
- part of forebrain
Reticular formation
Nerve network that travels through brainstem into thalamus
- filters info and plays an important role in controlling arousal
- part of forebrain
Limbic system
Neural system associated with emotions and drives
- includes amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus
- part of forebrain
Amygdala
Neural clusters that enable aggression and fear
- part of forebrain + limbic system
Hippocampus
Neural clusters that help process explicit Memories
- part of forebrain + limbic system
Hypothalamus
Neural clusters that influence bodily maintenance (hunger, thirst, body temperature, etc)
- tries to maintain homeostatic internal state –> listens into blood chemistry and any incoming orders from other brain parts
- part of forebrain + limbic system
Cerebral hemisphere
Hemisphere of brain that controls perception, thinking, and speaking
- part of forebrain
Cerebral Cortex
Thin layer of interconnected neural cells covering forebrain’s cerebral hemisphere
- ultimate control and information-processing center
-gyrus : bulge of cortex - sulcus: crease of cortex
Left hemisphere
- process language
- make quick, literal interpretations of langauge
- math tasks
Right hemisphere
- makes inferences
- help modulate speech
- orchestrate self-awareness
Frontal lobes
Portion of cerebral cortex at the forehead
- involved in speaking, muscle movements, planning, judgment
- steer us to kindness / away from violence
Parietal lobes
Portion of cerebral cortex at the top rear of head
- receives sensory input for touch and body position
Occipital lobes
Portion of cerebral cortex at the back of the head / 뒷목
- receive information from visual fields
Temporal lobes
Portion of cerebral cortex above the ears
- auditory areas; receive info from opposite ear
Motor cortex
Cerebral cortex area at rear of frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
Somatosensory cortex
Cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
Auditory cortex
Cerebral cortex area in temporal lobes
- info is from the opposite side ear
Association areas
Cerebral cortex area not involved in primary motor or sensory function
- found in all four lobes
- involved in higher mental functions ; learning, speaking, remembering, thinking
Do we only use 10% of the brain?
No.
Association areas have no observable responses / data, but it is still important to interpret, integrate, and act on sensory information
Neuroplasticity and responses to damage
Neuroplasticity: brain ability to change in response to experiences
brain-damage effects is due to:
1. severed brain and spinal cord neurons can’t regenerate
2. some brain functions are preassigned to specific areas
Adapting
ex. blind person’s sensory cortex can invade visual cortex in order to better adapt to reading braille
Split brain patients
Cut the corpus callosum and separate the right and left hemisphere of brain
- personality and intellect intact
- left hand and left visual field processed by right hemisphere and vice versa
Ventricles
The ventricles play a key role in the circulation and absorption of CSF. CSF protects the brain and spinal cord, removes waste, and delivers nutrients.
Structural and functional connectivity
Structural connectivity:
- brain’s “wiring diagram” created by axons that connect brain areas
- unique to individuals as fingerprints
Functional connectivity:
- how group of neurons within connectome (network) function in relation to types of cognition
- determined by the amount of correlated neural activity in two brain areas
Individual differences
Twin studies
Between identical (monozygotic) twins and fraternal (dizygotic) twins, when separated, identical twins have more similiarities
Biological relatives more similar in personality than adoptive relatives
Gene - environment interactions
Environment trigger gene activity
Environmental factors that can affect epigenetic molecules that regulate gene expression
- attractive person growing up is more popular –> become more outgoing
Gene expressions and epigenetics
Epigenetics: genes are “switched on” without altering DNA
- interchange between heredity and the environment
- environment can influence genetic expression
Natural selection and adaptation
Certain biological and behavioral variations increase organism’s reproductive and survival chances in their particular environment –> offspring that survive pass their genes –> population characteristics change over time
Corpus callosum
Large band of neural fibers connecting right and left hemisphere of brain and carrying messages between them
