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Biology 152- Anatomy And Physiology > Quiz #7- Chapters 11 and 12 Respiratory and Digestive System > Flashcards

Quiz #7- Chapters 11 and 12 Respiratory and Digestive System Flashcards

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1
Q

Functions of the respiratory system

A

-gas exchange
-helps to regulate blood ph
-contains receptors for smell
-provides structures
-excretion of some water and heat

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2
Q

Respiration

A

Respiration is defined as the overall process in which
gases are exchanged between the atmosphere, the
blood, and cells of the body.

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3
Q

three steps of respiration

A
  1. Pulmonary ventilation
  2. External respiration
  3. Internal respiration
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4
Q

Pulmonary ventilation

A

Pulmonary ventilation (breathing) is the flow of air into
and out of the lungs

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5
Q

External respiration

A

External respiration – exchange of gases between the alveoli (air sacs) of the lungs and the blood in the
pulmonary capillaries

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6
Q

Internal respiration

A

exchange of gases in the between
the blood and systemic capillaries and tissue cells.

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7
Q

cellular respiration

A

cellular respiration is how your cells turn the food you eat into the energy your body needs to function

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8
Q

how does cellular reparation work

A

Your cells take in oxygen (O2) from the air you breathe.

The cells then use that oxygen to break down food (like glucose) and convert it into a special energy molecule called ATP.

This process also produces carbon dioxide (CO2) as a waste product, which your body then gets rid of when you exhale.

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9
Q

Upper respiratory system

A
  • Nose
  • Nasal cavity
  • Sinuses
  • Pharynx
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10
Q

Lower respiratory system

A
  • Larynx
  • Trachea
  • Bronchial Tree
  • Lungs
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11
Q

Conducting zone

A

interconnecting cavities. This is a
series of tubes and cavities that conduct air into and out
of the lungs

  • Nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
    bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles
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12
Q

Respiratory zone

A

Respiratory zone is tissues within the lungs where gas
exchange occurs

  • Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs and
    alveoli
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13
Q

how does respiratory system help with sense of smell

A

contains receptors for the sense of smell; filters, warms,
and moistens inspired air

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14
Q

what is inspired air

A

Inspired air is the air that you breathe in through your nose and mouth. This air is made up of different gases, including:

Nitrogen (78%)

Oxygen (21%)

Carbon dioxide (0.04%)

Water vapor

The main job of the inspired air is to provide your body with the oxygen it needs for cellular respiration

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15
Q

otorhinolaryngology

A

The branch of medicine that deals with the diagnosis and
treatment of diseases of the ears, nose, and throat (ENT)

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16
Q

external nares

A

Openings to the exterior of the nose

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17
Q

external portion of the nose

A

is made of cartilage and skin overlying bone and is lined with
mucous membrane. It provides an entrance for air which is
filtered by coarse hairs inside the nostrils.

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18
Q

nasal cavity

A

internal portion of the nose

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19
Q

nasal septum

A

divides the external and internal parts of the nose

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20
Q

paranasal sinuses

A

The paranasal sinuses are air-filled spaces within the bones of your skull, located around your nose.

  • They are lined with mucous membranes that are continuous with the lining of your nasal cavity.
  • They help reduce the weight of your skull.
  • They also serve as a resonant chamber, which means they can affect the quality of your voice!
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21
Q

paranasal sinuses include:

A

Maxillary sinuses (in the cheekbones)

Frontal sinuses (in the forehead)

Ethmoid sinuses (between the eyes)

Sphenoid sinuses (behind the eyes)

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22
Q

nasal cavity functions

A

Air warming

Moistening

Filtering

Olfaction

Sound resonance

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23
Q

pharynx (throat)

A

The pharynx is a muscular, funnel-shaped tube that starts at the back of your nose and extends down into your neck.

functions as a passageway for air and food and is a resonating chamber for producing speech sounds and houses the tonsils

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24
Q

3 sections of the pharynx

A

Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx

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25
Q

Nasopharynx

A

Uppermost portion of pharynx

Contains adenoid tonsil

Eustachian tube openings

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26
Q

Oropharynx

A

Behind mouth

Contains palatine and lingual tonsils

Lymphatic tissue for pathogen destruction

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27
Q

Laryngopharynx

A

Most inferior portion

Opens to larynx and esophagus

Involved in swallowing reflex

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28
Q

larynx

A

voice Box

Connects pharynx and trachea

Composed of 9 cartilage pieces connected by ligaments

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29
Q

components of the larynx

A

main components:
thyroid cartilage
epiglottis
cricoid cartilage

primary:
arytenoid cartilages, false vocal cords, and true
vocal cords.

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30
Q

thyroid cartilage

A

The thyroid cartilage (Adam’s apple) – largest cartilage found on
the anterior sided of the neck

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31
Q

epiglottis

A

The epiglottis is the most superior cartilage in the larynx, it has a flap that
closes over the top of the airway
when we swallow to prevent
food/fluids from going into the airway.

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32
Q

The cricoid cartilage

A

just below the thyroid cartilage.
helps prevent the airway from collapsing.

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33
Q

what is pitch controlled by

A

Pitch is controlled by the tension of the vocal folds. If they are pulled taut, they vibrate more rapidly and a higher pitch results when air passes over them. Lower sounds are produced by decreasing the muscular tension.

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34
Q

voice box

A

within the larynx made up of the vocal folds which are two pairs of folds of muscle and connective tissue covered with mucous membrane.

  • The upper pair is the false vocal cords.
  • The lower pair is the true vocal folds
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35
Q

trachea (windpipe)

A

📌 The trachea extends for 4-5 inches from the larynx down into the thoracic cavity.

📌 It is supported by C-shaped cartilage rings, which prevent it from collapsing.

📌 The trachea is lined with ciliated epithelium, which helps trap particles and move them up and out of the respiratory system.

📌 At the bottom, the trachea splits into the right and left primary bronchi, which lead into the lungs. (left goes to left lung and right goes to right lung)

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36
Q

mediastinum

A

separate the left and right lung medially

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37
Q

lobules

A

lobules are the smallest functional units within the lobes of the lungs. Each lobule contains:

Lymphatic vessels
Blood vessels (arterioles and venules)
Nerves
Connective tissues
Terminal bronchioles
Respiratory bronchioles
Alveolar ducts
Alveolar sacs
Alveoli

The alveoli are where the actual gas exchange happens between the air and the blood. The lobules allow the lungs to be divided into these smaller, organized units.

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38
Q

lungs

A

Soft, cone-shaped organ
Separated by mediastinum
Enclosed by diaphragm and thoracic cage

Pleural membrane layers:

Parietal pleura (outer, lines
the thoracic cavity)
Visceral pleura (inner, attached to lung)

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39
Q

respiratory membrane

A

Exchange of gases (O2 and CO2) between the blood and the air in
the lungs occurs across the thin respiratory membrane.

The respiratory membrane consists of the epithelial cells of the alveolus, the endothelial cells of the capillary, and the two fused
basement membranes of these layers

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40
Q

alveoli

A

The alveoli are the only sites of gas exchange between the
atmosphere and the blood.

  • The tiny sacs are clustered at the distal ends of the alveolar ducts.
  • They are the functional units of the lungs where gas exchange
    occurs.
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41
Q

Alveolar Type I cells

A

Alveolar Type I cells – made up of simple squamous epithelium, thin walls to diffuse gases

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42
Q

Alveolar Type II cells

A

produce pulmonary surfactant
(a lipid rich film) that mixes with the tissue fluid lining
to decrease surface tension to permit inflation of
alveoli (Wet plastic-bag principle)

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43
Q

Alveolar Macrophages

A

Phagocytize foreign material

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44
Q

Pulmonary ventilation

A

Pulmonary ventilation or breathing, the flow of air
between the atmosphere and the lungs, occurs due to
differences in air pressure. It involves inspiration and
expiration

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45
Q

inspiration

A

inspiration is the process of air flowing into the lungs due to the decrease in pressure inside compared to outside. The diaphragm and intercostal muscles work together to make this happen.

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46
Q

process of inspiration

A

📌 During inspiration, the pressure inside the lungs decreases compared to the atmospheric pressure outside.

📌 This lower pressure inside the lungs causes air from the outside to flow into the lungs.

📌 The main muscles involved in inspiration are the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles.

📌 As these muscles contract, they increase the volume of the thoracic cavity, causing the lungs to expand and air to be drawn in.

📌 The expansion of the lungs is also aided by the elastic recoil of the lung tissues and the surface tension-lowering effects of pulmonary surfactant.

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47
Q

Expiration

A

expiration is the process of air flowing out of the lungs due to the increase in pressure inside compared to outside. The intercostal and abdominal muscles work together to make this happen.

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48
Q

process of expiration

A

📌 During expiration, the pressure inside the lungs increases compared to the atmospheric pressure outside.

📌 This higher pressure inside the lungs causes air to flow out of the lungs to the outside.

📌 The main muscles involved in expiration are the internal intercostal muscles, abdominal muscles (like the external oblique, internal oblique, and transverse abdominis), and the muscles that compress the abdomen.

📌 As these muscles contract, they decrease the volume of the thoracic cavity, forcing the air out of the lungs.

📌 Expiration is also aided by the elastic recoil of the lung and chest wall tissues, as well as the surface tension-lowering effects of pulmonary surfactant.

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49
Q

spirometry

A

The measurement of different air volumes is called spirometry, and it describes 4 distinct respiratory
volumes

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50
Q

respiratory cycle

A

One inspiration followed by expiration is called a
respiratory cycle

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51
Q

tidal volume (TV)

A

the amount of air that enters or
leaves the lungs during one respiratory cycle is the
tidal volume (TV)

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52
Q

inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

A

During forced inspiration, an additional volume, the inspiratory reserve volume (IRV), can be inhaled into
the lungs.

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53
Q

inspiratory capacity

A

IRV + TV gives us the inspiratory capacity.

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54
Q

Anatomic dead space

A

is air remaining in the bronchial
tree.

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55
Q

Modified Breathing Movements

A

-coughing
-sneezing
-sighing
-yawning
-sobbing
-crying
-laughing
-hiccupping

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56
Q

Coughing

A

A long-drawn and deep inhalation followed by a strong exhalation that suddenly sends a blast of air through the upper respiratory passages; stimulus for this reflex act may be a foreign body lodged in the larynx, trachea, or epiglottis

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57
Q

Sneezing

A

Spasmodic contraction of muscles of exhalation that forcefully expels air through the nose and mouth; stimulus may be an irritation of the nasal mucosa

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58
Q

Sighing

A

A long-drawn and deep inhalation immediately followed by a shorter but
forceful exhalation

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58
Q

Yawning

A

A deep inhalation through the widely opened mouth producing an
exaggerated depression of the mandible; may be stimulated by drowsiness,
fatigue, or someone else’s yawning, but precise cause is unknown

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59
Q

Sobbing

A

A series of convulsive inhalations followed by a single prolonged exhalation

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60
Q

Crying

A

An inhalation followed by many short convulsive exhalations, during which
the vocal folds vibrate; accompanied by characteristic facial expressions and
tears

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61
Q

Laughing

A

The same basic movements as crying, but the rhythm of the movements and the facial expressions usually differ from those of crying

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62
Q

Hiccupping

A

Spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm followed by a spasmodic closure
of the larynx, which produces a sharp sound on inhalation; stimulus is
usually irritation of the sensory nerve endings of the gastrointestinal trac

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63
Q

partial pressure

A

The pressure of a specific gas in a mixture is called its partial pressure.

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64
Q

Air is a mixture of gases

A

Air is a mixture of gases—nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, carbon
dioxide, and others—each of which contributes to the total air
pressure.

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65
Q

external and internal respiration

A

In external and internal respiration O2 and CO2 move from
areas of higher partial pressure to areas of lower partial
pressure

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66
Q

External respiration

A

(pulmonary gas exchange) is the exchange
of gases between alveolar air and pulmonary blood capillaries

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67
Q

Internal respiration

A

(systemic gas exchange) is the exchange of gases between systemic tissue capillaries and systemic tissue cells.

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68
Q

hypoxia

A

A deficiency of oxygen reaching tissues

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69
Q

oxyhemoglobin

A

Oxyhemoglobin is like a special delivery truck for oxygen in your blood! 🚚💨

Here’s how it works:
Hemoglobin = Protein in red blood cells 🔴

When hemoglobin picks up oxygen, it becomes “oxyhemoglobin”

Over 98.5% of oxygen travels in your blood this way! 🫁

  • Oxyhemoglobin is unstable in areas where the
    concentration of oxygen is low and gives up its oxygen
    molecules in those areas
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70
Q

percentage of oxygen and carbon dioxide in inhaled air

A

Inhaled air is 21% oxygen and 0.04% carbon dioxide

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71
Q

percentage of oxygen and carbon dioxide in exhaled air

A

Exhaled air is 16% oxygen and 4.5% carbon dioxide

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72
Q

Carbon dioxide is transported in three ways

A

About 7% is dissolved in plasma, 23% combines with the globin of
hemoglobin, and 70% is converted to bicarbonate ions (HCO3–)

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73
Q

Normal breathing

A

Normal breathing is a rhythmic, involuntary act even
though the muscles are under voluntary control

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74
Q

eupnea

A

normal breathing (12 – 20/min, quiet & easy

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75
Q

apnea

A

no breathing

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76
Q

dyspnea

A

difficulty breathing

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77
Q

respiratory center two principal areas

A
  1. The medullary respiratory center in the medulla oblongata
    (rhythmicity).
  2. The pontine respiratory group in the pons (pneumotaxic)
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78
Q

inspiratory area

A

The inspiratory area sends signals to the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles, telling them to contract. This causes inhalation, as air is drawn into the lungs. The inspiratory area works together with other parts of the respiratory center, like the pneumotaxic area in the pons, to regulate the overall rate and depth of our breathing.

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79
Q

what sets the basic rythm of respiration

A

The inspiratory area in the medulla oblongata is responsible for setting the basic rhythm of our breathing. This area contains neurons that send out regular signals to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, telling them when to contract and relax.

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80
Q

Respirations

A

Respirations refer to the overall process of breathing - the inhalation and exhalation of air in and out of the lungs. This is a vital function that allows our bodies to take in oxygen and get rid of carbon dioxide.

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81
Q

Medullary Rhythmicity Centers two groups

A

dorsal respiratory group (DRG)

ventral respiratory group (VRG)

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82
Q

dorsal respiratory group (DRG)

A

The DRG is responsible for the basic rhythm of breathing.
Neurons in this area transmit impulses that cause the
diaphragm and external intercostal muscles to contract for
approximately 2 seconds followed by 3 seconds of
inactivity.

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83
Q

ventral respiratory group (VRG)

A

The VRG has a cluster of neurons called the pre-Botzinger
complex that acts as a pacemaker for the DRG. This
contributes to the regular rhythm of breathing, and as well
this area becomes more active when more forceful
breathing is required. Neurons in this area then create
impulses that stimulate the accessory muscles of breathing.

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84
Q

Pontine Respiratory Group (PRG)

A

The Pontine Respiratory Group (PRG) within the pons modifies the basic respiratory rhythm during periods of exercise and/or speaking.

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85
Q

The PRG is made up of:

A
  • Neurons in the Pneumotaxic area that shorten the duration of inspiration so that the rate of respirations increases
  • Neurons in the Apneustic area that prolong duration of inhalation for long deep inhalation (increased depth of respirations).
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86
Q

The 3 main things that stimulate breathing

A

chemicals
lung tissue stretching
emotional state

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87
Q

These gases are our main
stimulus to breathe

A

If either CO2 or H+ ion concentrations rise, the central
chemoreceptors signal the respiratory center, and
breathing rate increases. These gases are our main
stimulus to breathe

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88
Q

Hyperventilation

A

lowers the amount of carbon dioxide
in the blood and therefore impulses will strive to slow
respiratory rate.

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89
Q

Limbic system

A

Limbic system – anticipation of activity or emotion
can stimulate

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90
Q

Proprioception (body position)

A

Proprioception (body position) – stimulates on start of activity

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91
Q

Temperature

A

Temperature – warming increases respiratory rate

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92
Q

Pain

A
  • Sudden pain → apnea
  • Prolonged somatic pain can increase rate while visceral
    pain can slow the rate
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93
Q

Airway irritation

A

Airway irritation – cough or sneeze

94
Q

Other Regulatory Factors that Affect Breathing:

A

*Limbic system
*Proprioception (body position)
* Temperature
* Pain
* Airway irritation

95
Q

increase in ventilation during exercise

A

The abrupt increase in ventilation at the start of exercise is due to neural changes that send excitatory impulses to the inspiratory area in the medulla
oblongata.

96
Q

gradual increase in ventilation during moderate exercise

A

The more gradual increase in ventilation during moderate exercise is due to chemical and
physical changes in the bloodstream

97
Q

aging in the respiratory system

A
  • the alveoli, become less
    elastic and more rigid
    -the chest wall becomes more
    rigid as well. The result is a decrease in vital lung
    capacity
  • Elderly people are more susceptible to pulmonary
    diseases such as pneumonia, emphysema, bronchitis,
    and other pulmonary disorders
  • Aging also leads to decrease in blood O2 levels,
    decreased exercise capacity, and decreased
    macrophage activity
98
Q

Digestion

A

refers to the mechanical and
chemical breakdown of foods so that nutrients can be absorbed by cells.

99
Q

Mechanical digestion

A

breaking down of food into
smaller pieces to increase surface area, consists of mixing waves that
macerate food and mix it with gastric juice, forming chyme

100
Q

Chemical digestion

A

enzymes breaking down complex
organic molecules into simpler molecules, with each
specific enzyme being specific to the food it will break
down

101
Q

gastrointestinal (GI) tract or alimentary canal

A

is a continuous tube that extends from the mouth to the anus.
The GI tract contains food from the time it is eaten until it is
digested and absorbed or eliminated from the body.

102
Q

Organs of the gastrointestinal tract

A

mouth (oral cavity)
pharynx, esophagus, stomach
small intestine
large intestine (also called bowel or colon).

103
Q

length of the GI tract

A

16.5–23 ft. in living people

104
Q

accessory digestive organs that aid in the processes of digestion

A

The teeth
tongue,
salivary glands
liver, gallbladder,
and pancreas

105
Q

Digestion includes six basic processes:

A

Ingestion - eating
2. Secretion– release of water, enzymes, acids, &
buffers
3. Mixing and propulsion – movement of food products
along the GI tract
4. Digestion – mechanical and chemical breakdown of
foods
5. Absorption – getting food molecules into the body
(blood and lymph)
6. Defecation – elimination of feces

106
Q

Ingestion

A

eating

107
Q

Secretion

A

release of water, enzymes, acids, & buffers

108
Q

Mixing and propulsion –

A

– movement of food products
along the GI tract

109
Q

Absorption

A

getting food molecules into the body (blood and lymph

110
Q

Defecation

A

elimination of feces

111
Q

The four layers of the GI tract

A

mucosa
submucosa,
muscularis,
and serosa and peritoneum.

112
Q

parietal peritoneum

A

lines the wall of the
abdominal cavity

113
Q

visceral peritoneum

A

the visceral peritoneum covers organs in the cavity

114
Q

peritoneum

A

The peritoneum binds organs to each other and to the
walls. Folds within the peritoneum contain blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves.

115
Q

Parts of the peritoneum

A

mesentery and greater omentum

116
Q

Greater omentum

A

is a large protective “apron” that is a flap of peritoneum that hangs over the top of the abdominal organs and serves a protective function for the
abdominal organs

117
Q

The mesentery

A

is another part of the peritoneum that binds the small intestine to the posterior abdominal wall.
Otherwise, the small intestine is rather loosely secured.

118
Q

Mucosa Layer

A

Inner layer is the mucosa – a mucous memberane.
* Lined with epithelium tissue that is attached to a connective tissue layer and a thin muscular layer.

  • It protects secretion
    tissues of the GI tract and carries on
    and absorption
119
Q

Muscularis Layer

A

Made up of skeletal muscle in the mouth, pharynx, and upper esophagus as well as the external sphincter.

  • Smooth muscle layers with inner circular fibers and outer longitudinal fibers make up the rest of the tract.
  • These muscles propel food
    through the canal.
  • The muscular contractions of the GI tract (controlled by impulses from the enteric nervous system – control GI
    behavior independent of CNS) are called peristalsis.
  • Mixing movements in the stomach occur when smooth muscle contract rhythmically in small sections.
  • The ability of the GI tract to mix and move food along its length is called motility
120
Q

peristalsis

A

The muscular contractions of the GI tract (controlled by impulses from the enteric nervous system – control GI behavior independent of CNS)

121
Q

motility

A

The ability of the GI tract to mix and move food along its
length

122
Q

Serosa Layer

A

Outer layer = visceral peritoneum
* Largest serous membrane of the body.
* It protects underlying tissues and secretes serous fluid
to keep the GI tract from sticking to other tissues in
the abdominal cavity

123
Q

function of the mouth

A

to receive food and
begins mechanical digestion by mastication

124
Q

lips

A

Lips are highly mobile structures that surround the mouth
opening. Contain sensory receptors to help judge the
temperature and texture of food

125
Q

what does the mouth or oral cavity consist of

A

formed by the cheeks (lateral walls), hard and soft palates, lips, and tongue

126
Q

tongue

A

forms the floor of the oral cavity. It is composed of
thick skeletal muscle covered with mucous membrane. The
superior surface and lateral areas of the tongue are covered with
papillae.

127
Q

Papillae

A

Papillae are the tiny bumps or projections on the surface of the tongue. They help provide texture and friction to assist with moving food around in your mouth during chewing and swallowing.

The papillae contain your taste buds, which allow you to detect different tastes like sweet, sour, salty, and bitter. This helps you enjoy the flavors of the foods you eat! 🍔🍕

128
Q

Lingual tonsils

A

are lymphatic tissue located in the root of the tongue

129
Q

frenulum

A

the thing that attaches the tongue to the floor of the mouth

130
Q

cranial nerve #12

A

Motor impulses come to the tongue via cranial nerve
#12

130
Q

lingual lipase

A

Glands in the tongue secrete lingual lipase which digests triglycerides once in the acid environment of the stomach

131
Q

cranial nerve #7 and #9

A

hypoglossal and sensory impulses from the receptors in taste buds travel through cranial nerve #7
and cranial nerve #9 – glossopharyngeal.

132
Q

salivary glands

A

The salivary glands secrete saliva, which moistens and dissolves food particles, binds them together, allows tasting, helps to cleanse the mouth and teeth, and begins carbohydrate digestion

133
Q

three pairs of salivary glands:

A

parotid
submandibular
sublingual

134
Q

purpose of saliva

A

Saliva lubricates food and starts the chemical digestion of
carbohydrates.

135
Q

teeth (dentes)

A

are accessory digestive organs located in bony
sockets of the mandible and maxillae

136
Q

tooth consists of three principal portions

A

crown, root, and neck.

137
Q

Teeth are composed primarily of?

A

Each tooth consists of a crown and a root, and is made
of enamel, dentin, pulp, cementin, nerves, and blood
vessels. and are covered by enamel, the hardest substance in the body.

  • A tooth is held tight in its socket by a periodontal
    ligament
138
Q

Humans have two sets of teeth

A

deciduous and permanent

139
Q

mastication

A

Through mastication, food is mixed with saliva and shaped into
a bolus

140
Q

Salivary amylase

A

Salivary amylase begins the digestion of starches in the mouth

141
Q

soft palate and uvula function

A

The soft palate and uvula function to close off the nasal cavity during swallowing

141
Q

palatine tonsils

A

they are lymphatic tissue, help to protect the body against
infection

142
Q

palate

A

forms the roof the oral cavity and has an anterior hard palate and a posterior soft palate

143
Q

pharyngeal tonsils
(adenoids)

A

Another lymphatic tissue mass, pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids), are located on the posterior wall of the
pharynx, above the border of the soft palate.

144
Q

Salivary glands contain

A

Salivary glands contain serous cells that produce a watery fluid with amylase, and mucous cells that produce a lubricating and binding mucus.
* Salivary glands receive parasympathetic stimulation
that triggers the production of a large volume of saliva
at the sight or smell of food.

145
Q

parotid glands

A

lying in front of the ear, are the
largest of the major salivary glands; they secrete a
clear, watery fluid rich in amylase

146
Q

submandibular glands

A

The submandibular glands, located on the floor of the mouth, secrete a more viscous fluid

147
Q

sublingual glands

A

The sublingual glands, inferior to the tongue, are the smallest of the major salivary glands and secrete a
saliva that is thick and stringy

148
Q

pharynx

A

The pharynx is a cavity lying behind the mouth, The pharynx connects the nasal and oral cavities with the larynx
and esophagus and is divided into:
* Nasopharynx (top portion)
* Oropharynx (middle portion)
* Laryngopharynx (bottom portion

149
Q

esophagus

A

The esophagus is a muscular tube that connects the pharynx (throat) to the stomach. It’s about 4-5 inches long and helps move food from your mouth down into your stomach.

150
Q

key things to know about the esophagus are:

A

It has two sphincters - the upper esophageal sphincter (made of skeletal muscle) and the lower esophageal sphincter (made of smooth muscle). These help control the movement of food.

It uses peristalsis, which are wave-like muscle contractions, to push food down towards the stomach.

151
Q

pharynx

A

The pharynx is a funnel-shaped cavity that connects the nasal and oral cavities to the larynx and esophagus. composed of skeletal
muscle and lined by mucous membrane. It’s an important part of both the respiratory and digestive systems.

152
Q

parts of the pharynx

A

Nasopharynx (top portion)

Oropharynx (middle portion)

Laryngopharynx (bottom portion)

153
Q

The key things to know about the pharynx:

A

It contains lymphoid tissue like the palatine and lingual tonsils, which help protect against infections.

It’s involved in swallowing, as the muscles in the pharynx contract to push food from the mouth into the esophagus.

154
Q

bolus

A

the chewed food mixed with saliva

155
Q

Swallowing consists of three stages

A

voluntary stage
involuntary stage or pharyngeal stage.
esophageal stage

156
Q

A voluntary stage

A

A voluntary stage, from the mouth to the oropharynx the bolus is forced into the oropharynx by the tongue

157
Q

An involuntary stage or pharyngeal stage.

A

Sensory receptors in the pharynx sense food, breathing is temporarily interrupted when the soft palate and uvula move upward and the epiglottis seals off the larynx and the vocal cords come together

158
Q

esophageal stage

A

An involuntary esophageal stage. Peristalsis transports
the food in the esophagus to the stomach

159
Q

stomach

A

The stomach is a J-shaped muscular organ located right below the diaphragm.

160
Q

important functions of the stomach:

A

It receives and mixes food with digestive juices

It acts as a holding reservoir for food

It slowly propels food into the small intestine

161
Q

The stomach has 4 main regions:

A

Cardia - surrounds the upper opening

Fundus - the upper, left portion

Body - the large central portion

Pylorus - the lower part leading to the small intestine

Can friendly bears play

162
Q

The stomach wall has 4 layers

A
  • mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa. This allows for mechanical digestion (mixing) and chemical digestion (with enzymes like pepsin).
163
Q

pyloric sphincter.

A

Between the pylorus and duodenum

164
Q

rugae

A

When the stomach is empty, the mucosa lies in many large folds, called rugae, which provide more surface area and
the ability to expand.

165
Q

The main event of chemical digestion

A

The main event of chemical digestion in the stomach is the beginning of protein digestion by the enzyme pepsin (chief cells), which breaks peptide bonds between the amino acids of proteins.

166
Q

Mucus

A

Mucus secreted by mucous cells coats the mucosa, forming a thick barrier between the cells of the stomach lining and the gastric juice

167
Q

Lingual lipase

A

Lingual lipase produced by the tongue digests triglycerides into fatty acids and diglycerides in the acid environment of the stomach.

168
Q

The stomach wall

A

The stomach wall is impermeable to most substances. Mucous cells of the stomach absorb some water, ions, and short-chain fatty acids, as well as certain drugs (especially aspirin) and alcohol.

169
Q

Gastric glands generally contain 3 types of exocrine cells:

A
  1. Mucous neck cells
  2. Chief cells
  3. Parietal cells
170
Q

Mucous neck cells

A

Mucous neck cells – produce mucus that protects the
stomach lining.

171
Q

Chief cells

A

– secrete pepsinogen which once in contact with hydrochloric acid, becomes activated into pepsin which is an enzyme that digests proteins.

172
Q

Parietal cells

A

Parietal cells – secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor (required for vitamin B12 absorption from the small
intestine).

173
Q

G cells

A

secrete the hormone
gastrin into the bloodstream.

174
Q

chyme

A

Following a meal, mixing actions of the stomach turn the
food into chyme and pass it toward the pyloric region
using peristaltic waves

The rate at which the stomach empties depends on the
fluidity of the chyme and the type of food

175
Q

The pancreas

A

The pancreas is an organ located behind the stomach. It has both exocrine and endocrine functions

176
Q

Exocrine Function of the pancreas:

A

The pancreas produces digestive enzymes like amylase, trypsin, and lipase that help break down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

These enzymes are secreted into the small intestine through the pancreatic duct.

177
Q

Endocrine Function of pancreas:

A

The pancreas also contains clusters of cells called the islets of Langerhans that secrete hormones like insulin and glucagon.

These hormones help regulate blood sugar levels.

178
Q

Some key facts about the pancreas:

A

It’s closely associated with the small intestine and liver.

The pancreatic and bile ducts join before emptying into the duodenum.

The pancreatic enzymes are released in an inactive form and get activated once they reach the small intestine.

179
Q

acini

A

small clusters of glandular epithelial cells

180
Q

Pancreatic juice

A

Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that digest starch (pancreatic amylase); proteins (carboxypeptidase trypsin, chymotrypsin); triglycerides (pancreatic lipase); and nucleic acids (RNA/DNA)

181
Q

Pancreatic enzymes break down all 3 types of complex
food molecules. The main enzymes are

A

Amylase – converts starch to maltose
* Trypsin – converts polypeptides to peptides
* Lipase – converts emulsified fats to fatty acids and glycerol

182
Q

Cholecystokinin

A

Cholecystokinin from the wall of the small intestine stimulates the release of pancreatic juice with abundant digestive enzymes

183
Q

secretin

A

The hormone secretin, from the duodenum, stimulates the release of pancreatic juice with high bicarbonate ion concentration but few digestive
enzymes. This assists with raising the pH and neutralizing the HCl in stomach chyme.

184
Q

the liver

A

The liver is the largest internal organ in the body and is located in the upper right part of the abdomen, behind the stomach.

Structurally, the liver is divided into left and right lobes. It has a fibrous capsule and is made up of tiny functional units called hepatic lobules.

185
Q

function of the liver

A

It produces bile, which helps digest and absorb fats in the small intestine.

It filters blood and removes toxins, drugs, and other harmful substances.

It stores vitamins and minerals like iron and vitamin A.

It helps regulate blood sugar levels and metabolism.

It breaks down and recycles old red blood cells.

186
Q

The gallbladder

A

The gallbladder is a small sac-like organ located under the liver that stores and concentrates the bile produced by the liver.

A sphincter muscle controls the release of bile from the common bile duct

187
Q

Bile

A

Bile is a yellowish-green liquid that hepatic cells secrete. Bile includes water, bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol, and electrolytes

188
Q

The small intestine

A

The small intestine is a long, narrow tube that connects the stomach to the large intestine. It’s about 10 feet long

189
Q

The small intestine 3 main sections

A

Duodenum - the first and shortest section, right after the stomach

Jejunum - the middle section

Ileum - the final section before the large intestine

190
Q

Some key functions of the small intestine:

A

It completes the digestion of food that started in the stomach.

It absorbs the majority of nutrients from the digested food.

It has a large surface area with features like villi and microvilli to maximize absorption.

It receives secretions from the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder to aid digestion.

191
Q

where does absorption take place

A

About 90% of all absorption takes place in the small intestine. The other 10% occurs in the stomach and large intestine

192
Q

Absorption

A

Absorption is the passage of nutrients from digested food in the
gastrointestinal tract into the blood or lymph. It occurs mostly in
the small intestine by means of simple diffusion, facilitated
diffusion, osmosis, and active transport.

193
Q

monosaccharides

A

monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates. They are the basic units that make up more complex carbohydrates like disaccharides and polysaccharides.

The three main monosaccharides are:
Glucose
Fructose
Galactose

These monosaccharides are absorbed directly into the bloodstream from the small intestine. The liver can then convert fructose and galactose into glucose, which is the body’s preferred source of energy.

194
Q

The large intestine

A

The large intestine is the final section of the digestive tract, connecting the small intestine to the anus. It’s about 5 feet long and 2.5 inches in diameter.

The large intestine lacks the villi and digestive enzymes of the small intestine, so it does not absorb nutrients. Instead, it absorbs water and electrolytes to form solid waste (feces) that is then eliminated.

195
Q

The main functions of the large intestine are:

A

Absorbing water and electrolytes from indigestible food matter

Storing waste before it is eliminated from the body

Producing some vitamins through bacterial action

196
Q

The large intestine is divided into several sections:

A

Cecum (pouch at the beginning)

Colon (ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid)

Rectum

Anal canal

197
Q

defecation reflex action

A

Defecation is stimulated by a defecation reflex action that forces feces into the rectum where they can be expelled

198
Q

teniae coli

A

Teniae coli are three approximately 8-mm-wide longitudinal smooth muscle bands in the colon wall. 9. They are parallel, equally distributed, and form a triple helix structure from the appendix to the sigmoid colon.

199
Q

haustra

A

Fibers of longitudinal muscle are arranged in teniae coli that extend the entire length of the colon, creating a series of pouches called haustra

the small pouches caused by sacculation, which give the colon its segmented appearance. The taenia coli runs the length of the large intestine.

200
Q

intestinal phase

A

The intestinal phase of digestion begins once food enters the small intestine.

In addition, gastric motility and gastric secretion decrease in order to slow the exit of chyme from the stomach, which prevents the small intestine from being overloaded with more chyme than
it can handle

201
Q

Aging and the Digestive System

A

Decreased secretory mechanisms - The stomach, pancreas, and other organs produce fewer digestive enzymes and secretions.

Reduced motility - The muscles of the digestive tract become less coordinated and efficient at moving food along.

Loss of strength and tone - The supporting structures and muscles of the digestive organs weaken over time.

202
Q

Some specific age-related issues in the digestive system that can develop include:

A

Loss of taste sensation

Hernias

Peptic ulcers

Constipation

Hemorrhoids

Diverticular diseases

These changes can make digestion and nutrient absorption more difficult for older adults. Maintaining a healthy diet and lifestyle becomes even more important as we age.

203
Q

Metabolism

A

Metabolism refers to all the chemical reactions that occur in the body to sustain life. It’s an energy-balancing act between two key processes:

Anabolism - The synthesis of complex molecules from simpler substances. This is a constructive process that requires energy.

Catabolism - The breakdown of complex organic compounds into simpler ones. This is a destructive process that releases energy.

204
Q

Enzymes

A

Enzymes act as critical catalysts that speed up these chemical reactions in the body.

205
Q

The key link between anabolic and catabolic reactions

A

The key link between anabolic and catabolic reactions is ATP (adenosine triphosphate). Cellular processes convert nutrients into usable energy through complex metabolic pathways like glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain.

206
Q

Carbohydrates

A

Carbohydrates, such as sugars and starches, are organic compounds used for sources of energy in the diet.

  • Carbohydrates are ingested in a variety of forms: starch from grains, glycogen from meat, and disaccharide and monosaccharide sugars from fruits and vegetables
207
Q

Malnutrition

A

Malnutrition is poor nutrition that results either from a lack of essential nutrients or a failure to utilize them; malnutrition may result from undernutrition or
overnutrition

208
Q

Food molecules absorbed by the gastrointestinal (GI) tract have
three main fates:

A
  1. To supply energy for sustaining life processes.
  2. To serve as building blocks for the synthesis of more complex
    molecules, such as muscle proteins, hormones, and enzymes.
  3. Storage for future use.
209
Q

Nutrients

A

Nutrients are chemical substances in food that body cells use for growth, maintenance, and repair. Nutrition is the process by which the body takes in and uses nutrients

210
Q

The six main types of nutrients are

A

carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, water, minerals, and vitamins.

211
Q

Essential nutrients

A

are specific nutrient molecules that the body
cannot make and must be obtained from the diet

212
Q

four principal routes of heat loss from the body to the environment are

A
  1. Radiation
  2. Conduction
  3. Convection
  4. Evaporation
213
Q

Heat

A

Heat is a form of energy that can be measured as temperature
and expressed in units called calories. A calorie is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water 1 C

214
Q

Calorie

A

Calorie is the unit of heat used to express the caloric value of foods and to measure the body’s metabolic rate.

215
Q

metabolic rate

A

The rate at which this heat is
produced, the metabolic rate.

  • The metabolic rate is affected by: exercise, hormones, the
    nervous system, body temperature, ingestion of food, age, gender, climate, sleep, and nutrition.
  • Measurement is called the basal metabolic rate (BMR)
216
Q

catabolism-heat related

A

Most of the heat produced by the body comes from the catabolism

217
Q

Anabolism

A

anabolism is the constructive, building-up phase of metabolism. It requires the input of energy to create larger, more complex molecules from smaller ones.

Some examples of anabolic processes in the body include:

Synthesizing proteins from amino acids

Converting glucose into glycogen for storage

Producing triglycerides from fatty acids and glycerol

Anabolism is the opposite of catabolism, which is the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones. Together, anabolism and catabolism make up the overall metabolic balance in the body.

218
Q

Proteins functions:

A

Proteins functions: enzymes, transportation (hemoglobin) or
antibodies, clotting factors, hormones, actin and myosin in muscle, and
structural components of the body.

219
Q

Anabolism-

A

Anabolism consists of reactions that combine simple substances into more complex molecules.

220
Q

Catabolism

A

Catabolism consists of reactions that break down complex organic compounds into simple ones.

221
Q

Lipids

A

Lipids are organic substances that supply energy for cellular processes and to build structures

Lipids include fats, phospholipids, and cholesterol

222
Q

triglycerides

A

The most common dietary lipids are triglycerides.

Triglycerides are found in animal and plant-based
foods.
* Saturated fats are found in foods of animal origin.
* Unsaturated fats are found in foods of plant origin.
* Cholesterol is found only in foods of animal origin.

223
Q

The process of breaking down fatty acids to produce energy

A

Lipolysis - First, the triglycerides (fats) are broken down into glycerol and fatty acids through a process called lipolysis.

Beta-Oxidation - The fatty acids then undergo beta-oxidation in the mitochondria. This involves a series of reactions that progressively break down the fatty acid chains, releasing acetyl-CoA.

Acetyl-CoA Entry into Krebs Cycle - The acetyl-CoA produced from beta-oxidation can then enter the Krebs cycle, where it is further broken down to generate ATP through the electron transport chain.

in summary the body catabolizes fatty acids to produce acetyl-CoA, which feeds into the Krebs cycle to generate usable energy in the form of ATP

224
Q

lipolysis

A

What is it?
The process of breaking down triglycerides (fats) into smaller parts 🧩

Specifically, splitting fat into glycerol and fatty acids 💥

Who’s involved? 🕵️

Hormones like:
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
Cortisol

Why does it happen?
To produce energy (ATP) 🔋
Help your body use stored fat for fuel 🚀

How it works:
Triglycerides get split apart
Fatty acids are converted to acetyl CoA
Acetyl CoA enters the Krebs cycle for energy production 💪

225
Q

ketone bodies

A

the liver converts some
acetyl CoA molecules into substances known as ketone bodies.

226
Q

Proteins

A

Proteins are polymers made up of amino acids linked together in a specific sequence.

They have a wide variety of functions, including serving as enzymes, hormones, antibodies, and structural components.

Protein sources can be classified as:

Complete proteins - Found in animal-based foods, contain all essential amino acids.

Incomplete proteins - Found in plant-based foods, missing one or more essential amino acids.

227
Q

During digestion, proteins are broken down into their amino acid components. These amino acids can then be used for:

A

Tissue growth and repair

Energy production through conversion to glucose

Synthesis of new proteins

228
Q

krebs cycle

A

is a key metabolic pathway that occurs in the mitochondria of cells. It’s an important part of cellular respiration and energy production.

The Krebs cycle is a crucial part of the overall process that allows cells to efficiently extract energy from glucose and other nutrients.

229
Q

key points about the Krebs cycle:

A

It is the second stage of glucose metabolism, following glycolysis.

In the Krebs cycle, the acetyl group from acetyl-CoA enters and undergoes a series of chemical reactions.

These reactions transfer chemical energy to electron carriers like NADH and FADH2.

The Krebs cycle also produces some ATP directly, as well as carbon dioxide and water as byproducts.

The energy-rich electrons from NADH and FADH2 then feed into the electron transport chain, which is the final stage of cellular respiration.

230
Q

electron transport chain

A

The electron transport chain is the final stage of cellular respiration, and it’s a crucial part of the process that allows cells to produce ATP.

The electron transport chain is the most efficient way for cells to generate large amounts of ATP from the breakdown of nutrients like glucose.

231
Q

key points about the electron transport chain:

A

It occurs in the mitochondria, right after the Krebs cycle.

The electron transport chain is a series of protein complexes and electron carriers that transfer electrons in a controlled manner.

As the electrons move through the chain, they release energy that is used to pump protons (H+ ions) across the inner mitochondrial membrane.

This creates a proton gradient, which then drives the enzyme ATP synthase to produce the majority of the cell’s ATP.

The electron transport chain is an aerobic process, meaning it requires oxygen as the final electron acceptor.

Biology 152- Anatomy And Physiology (11 decks)

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