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Biology 152- Anatomy And Physiology > Quiz #2- Chapters 5 and 6 Integementary and Skeletal System > Flashcards

Quiz #2- Chapters 5 and 6 Integementary and Skeletal System Flashcards

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1
Q

Bone

A

Bone is an organ comprised of different tissues including bone (osseous) tissue, dense connective tissue, epithelium, adipose tissue, and nervous tissue.

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2
Q

Support and function of bones

A

Provides structural framework for the body, giving shape to head, thorax and limbs

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3
Q

Protection function of bones

A

Safeguards internal organs like heart,lungs, brain, ears, and eyes from injury

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4
Q

Mineral homeostasis function of bones

A

Stores minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus, important for metabolic process

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5
Q

Hematopoiesis

A

The production of blood cells in red bone marrow

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6
Q

Yellow bone marrow function

A

Stores triglycerides

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7
Q

Long bones

A

Have greater length than width, consists of a shaft and variable number of ends. Ex. Femur, tibia

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8
Q

Short bones

A

Cube-shaped, nearly equal in length and width. Ex wrist and ankle bones

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9
Q

Flat bones

A

Thin, provide protection and extensive surfaces for muscle attachment. Ex cranial bones, sternum

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10
Q

Irregular bones

A

Have complex shapes, cannot be grouped into other categories ex. Vertebrae, facial bones

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11
Q

Diaphysis

A

The shaft or body of a long bone, made of compact bone

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12
Q

Epiphyses

A

The distal and proximal end of a long bone that forms bound with adjacent bones

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13
Q

Metaphysis

A

The region where the diaphysis joins the epiphysis in a long bone

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14
Q

Articular cartilage

A

The thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering joint surfaces of bones

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15
Q

Periosteum

A

Tough sheath of connective tissue and blood vessels surrounding bone outside articular cartilage

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16
Q

Medullary cavity

A

Hollow spaces within the diaphysis containing yellow bone marrow in adults

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17
Q

Endosteum

A

Thin membrane lining the medullary cavity

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18
Q

Osteoprogenitor cells

A

Stem cells that develop into osteoblasts

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19
Q

Osteoblasts

A

Cells that synthesize and secrete the extracellular matrix that calcifies into bone

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20
Q

Osteocytes

A

Most numerous cells in bone tissue, maintain bone tissue

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21
Q

Osteoclasts

A

Cells that break down extracellular matrix to release nutrients and help bones grow and heal

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22
Q

Ossification

A

The process of bone formation

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23
Q

Intramembranous ossification

A

Bone formation directly within connective tissue arranged in sheet like layers

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24
Q

Endochondral ossification

A

Bone formation within hyaline cartilage that develops from mesenchyme

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25
Q

Bone remodelling

A

Continuous process of replacing old bone tissue with new tissue

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26
Q

Minerals important for bone health

A

Calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, fluoride, manganese

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27
Q

Vitamins essential for bone health

A

A,C,D,K and B12

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28
Q

Hormones regulating bone growth and remodeling

A

HGH,IGFs,thyroid hormones, insulin, sex hormones, PTH, and calcitonin

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29
Q

Effect of exercise on bones

A

Stimulates osteoblasts and helps build stronger bones

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30
Q

Impact of aging on bone health

A

Decreased bone mass and increased risk of osteoporosis due to hormonal changes

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31
Q

Axial skeleton

A

80 bones around the longitudinal axis of the body (skull, auditory ossicles,hyoid, ribs,sternum, vertebral column)

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32
Q

Appendicular skeleton

A

126 bones of the upper and lower limbs plus girdles connecting limbs to axial skeleton

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33
Q

Number of bones in the skull

A

22 (8 cranial, 13 facial, and the mandible)

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34
Q

Frontal bone feature

A

Supraorbital foramina and frontal sinuses

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35
Q

Occipital bone features

A

Lambdoidal suture, foramen magnum, and occipital condyles

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36
Q

Temporal bone features

A

External auditory meatus, mandibular fossae, mastoid process, styloid process, zygomatic process

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37
Q

Hyoid bone

A

Located in the neck, supports the tongue, does not articulate with any other bone
“floating bone”

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38
Q

Sphenoid bone function

A

Connects the nuerocranium to the facial skeleton

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39
Q

Ethmoid bone features

A

Cruciform plates, perpendicular plate, superior and middle nasal conchae, ethmoidal sinuses, Crista galli

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40
Q

Paranasal sinuses function

A

Provide resonance of voice and reduce the weight of the skull

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41
Q

Fontanels

A

Soft spots on an infants skull where bones have not yet fused, this spot gradually closed over the first 12-24 months of life

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42
Q

Vertebral column

A

Flexible column of 26 bones supporting the body and protecting the spinal cord

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43
Q

Number of cervical vertebrae

A

7

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44
Q

Atlas

A

First cervical vertebrae supporting the head

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45
Q

Axis

A

Second cervical vertebrae with a toothlike dens that pivots within the atlas. supports tongue and hyoid

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46
Q

Number of thoracic vertebrae

A

12

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47
Q

Number of lumbar vertebrae

A

5

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48
Q

Sacrum

A

Triangular structure at the base of the spine made up of 5 fused vertebrae

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49
Q

Coccyx

A

Lowermost portion of the spine composed of 4 fused vertebrae

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50
Q

Components of the thoracic cage

A

Ribs, thoracic vertebrae, sternum, and costal cartilages

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51
Q

True ribs

A

First 7 Paris or ribs that joint the sternum directly

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52
Q

False ribs

A

Last 5 pairs of ribs that do not connect directly to the sternum

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53
Q

Intercostal spaces

A

Areas between ribs occupies by muscles, blood vessels, and nerves

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54
Q

Parts of the sternum

A

Manubrium, body, and diploid process

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55
Q

Components of the pectoral girdle

A

Two scapulae and two clavicles

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56
Q

Number of bones in each upper limb

A

30

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57
Q

Humerus

A

Upper arm bone extending from the scapula to the elbow

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58
Q

Radius

A

Forearm bone on the thumb side, extending from elbow to wrist

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59
Q

Ulna

A

The ulna plays a crucial role in the rotation of the forearm, allowing us to perform important movements like turning a doorknob or using a screwdriver.

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60
Q

Number of carpal bones

A

8

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61
Q

Number of metacarpal bones

A

5

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62
Q

Number of phalanges in each finger

A

3

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63
Q

Number of phalanges in the thumb

A

2

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64
Q

Components of the pelvic girdle

A

Two coxal bones and the sacrum

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65
Q

Parts of the coxal bone

A

Ilium, ishcium, and pubis

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66
Q

Obturator foramen

A

Large opening within pubis

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67
Q

Number of bones in each Lower limb

A

30

68
Q

Femur

A

Longest bone in the body, located in the thigh

69
Q

Tibia

A

Shin bone that supports body weight and articulates with femur and tarsal bones

70
Q

Fibula

A

Slender bone lateral to the tibia, not bearing body weight

71
Q

Number of tarsal bones

A

7

72
Q

Number of metatarsal bones

A

5

73
Q

Number of phalanges in each toe

A

3

74
Q

Number of phalanges in big toe

A

2

75
Q

Osteoporosis

A

Age related condition characterized by decreased bone mass and strength

76
Q

Function of the vertebral column

A

Supports the body and protect the spinal cord

77
Q

Function of the thoracic cage

A

Supports pectoral girdle, aids in breathing, protects thoracic and upper abdominal organs

78
Q

Function of the pelvic girdle

A

Supports trunk on Lower limbs, protects lower abdominal and pelvic organs

79
Q

Anatomical difference between male and female skeletons

A

Female pelvis structure allow for passage of baby

80
Q

What happens in the integumentary system as you age?

A

With age, the skin experiences decreased collagen, elastin, fibroblasts, gland function, and melanocyte activity, leading to wrinkles, dryness, and impaired temperature regulation and wound healing

81
Q

What does keratin do

A

A tough protein that helps protect the skin from damage

82
Q

Integumentary system

A

Composed of skin and accessory organs: hair, glands, nails and sensory receptors

83
Q

Main functions of skin

A

Temperature regulation, protection, sensation, vitamin D synthesis, excretion, and absorption

84
Q

Two main parts of skin

A

Epidermis (outer and thinner) and dermis (deeper and thicker)

85
Q

4 principal cell types in epidermis

A

Keratinocytes, melanocytes, langerhans cells, and tactile epithelial cells

86
Q

4 layers of epidermis

A

Stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granolosum, and stratum corneum

87
Q

Factors determining skin colour

A

Melonin, hemoglobin, and carotene

88
Q

Two layers of dermis

A

Superficial papillary layer and deeper reticular layer

89
Q

Subcutaneous layer function

A

Binds skin to underlying tissues and contains blood vessels supplying the skin

90
Q

Accessory structure of skin

A

Hair, glands, and nails

91
Q

Hair composition

A

Keratinized cells

92
Q

Sebaceous glands

A

These glands are associated with hair follicles and secrete an oily substance called sebum that helps keep the hair and skin moisturized.

93
Q

Ceremonious glands

A

modifies sweat glands that Secrete ear wax

94
Q

Sweat gland types

A

Eccrine and apocrine

95
Q

Nail matrix function

A

Produces new nail cells

96
Q

Vitamin D synthesis location

A

Skin

97
Q

Two types of skin wound healing

A

Epidermal (superficial) and deep wound healing

98
Q

Scar tissue formation

A

When you get a deep cut or injury, your body goes through these simple steps to fix it:

  1. First, your body sends special cleaning cells (phagocytes) to clean up any damaged or dead bone tissue 🧹
  2. Then, special cells called chondroblasts come and make a bridge of soft tissue (fibrocartilage) to connect the broken parts 🌉
  3. Next, bone-building cells (osteoblasts) come and turn that soft bridge into spongy bone tissue 🦴
  4. Finally, your body does some remodeling - kind of like renovating a house! Dead parts are removed, and the spongy bone becomes strong compact bone, leaving a scar 🏗️
99
Q

Age related skin changes

A

Decreased collagen, elastin, fibroblasts, gland function, and melanocyte activity

100
Q

Three types of skin cancer

A

Basal cell carcinoma, melanoma, squamous cell carcinoma

101
Q

Primary cause of skin cancer

A

Uv radiation exposure

102
Q

Burn classification

A

First-,second-,third- degree based on depth of tissue damage

103
Q

Pressure ulcers cause

A

Lack of blood flow to skin tissues subjected to constant pressure

104
Q

types of glands in the integumentary system

A

Sebaceous glands, Ceruminous glands, Sudoriferous (sweat) glands, and Mammary glands.

105
Q

Sudoriferous (sweat) glands

A

There are two types of sudoriferous (sweat) glands:

  • Apocrine sweat glands
  • Eccrine sweat glands

Both types of sweat glands secrete a watery fluid called sweat that helps cool the body through evaporation.

106
Q

Mammary glands

A

Mammary glands are a type of modified sweat gland that secrete milk. They are made up of two main components:

  • The parenchyma - This is the milk-producing tissue.

-The stroma - This is the connective tissue that supports the parenchyma.

these glands develop and enlarge during pregnancy in order to provide nutrients to their babies.

107
Q

Apocrine sweat glands

A

Apocrine sweat glands:
- Found mainly in the skin of the armpits (axilla), groin, around the nipples (areolae), and on the face in adult males.

  • Respond to body temperature, stress, and sexual arousal.
108
Q

Eccrine sweat glands:

A

Eccrine sweat glands:

  • The most prevalent sweat glands, distributed throughout most of the body, especially on the forehead, palms, and soles.
    Respond to body temperature to help regulate temperature.
109
Q

what are the 4 key glands of the integumentary system

A

the key glands are sebaceous, ceruminous, sudoriferous, and mammary glands

110
Q

Keratinocytes

A

Make up 90% of epidermal cells

Produce the protein keratin, which protects against water loss and injury

111
Q

Melanocytes

A

Produce the pigment melanin, which protects deeper cells from UV radiation

Transfer melanin to nearby keratinocytes

112
Q

Langerhans Cells

A

Intraepidermal macrophages that detect and destroy bacteria

Participate in immune responses

113
Q

Tactile Epithelial Cells

A

Detect touch sensations

Transmit information to the nervous system

114
Q

what cells are the epidermis

A

keratinocytes
Tactile epithelial cells
Langerhans Cells
melanocytes

115
Q

The material that creates nails

A

The nails are composed of hard, keratinized epidermal cells that grow from the nail matrix, which is the proximal portion of the epithelium deep to the nail root.

The key components are:

Nail body - The visible part of the nail

Nail root - The portion of the nail hidden under the skin

Nail matrix - The region where new nail cells are produced

Lunula - The crescent-shaped whitish area at the base of the nail

Cuticle - The fold of skin overlapping the nail root

As new cells are produced in the nail matrix, they get pushed outward and become keratinized, forming the hard, protective nail. This keratin material is what gives nails their strength and durability.

The nail matrix is the key structure responsible for nail growth and renewal.

116
Q

The visible part of the nail

A

the nail body

117
Q

nail root

A

The portion of the nail hidden under the skin

118
Q

Nail matrix

A

The region where new nail cells are produced

119
Q

Lunula

A

The crescent-shaped whitish area at the base of the nail

120
Q

cuticle

A

The fold of skin overlapping the nail root

121
Q

Temperature Regulation in skin

A

The skin helps maintain a stable body temperature through blood vessel dilation/constriction and sweating.

When the body gets too hot, blood vessels dilate to allow more heat to radiate from the skin. Sweat glands also secrete sweat to cool the body through evaporation.

When the body gets too cold, blood vessels constrict to conserve heat, and the arrector pili muscles contract to make hairs stand up, trapping air and insulating the body.

122
Q

Protection in skin

A

Protection:

The skin acts as a barrier, protecting the body from mechanical injury, chemicals, microbes, and UV radiation.

The stratum corneum and keratin provide a tough, waterproof layer. Melanin in the epidermis also absorbs UV rays.

123
Q

Cutaneous Sensation in skin

A

Nerve endings in the skin allow us to feel touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.

Specialized receptors like Meissner’s corpuscles and free nerve endings transmit these sensations to the brain.

124
Q

Excretion and Absorption in skin

A

The skin has a limited ability to absorb and excrete certain substances, like water, salts, and some drugs.

Sweat glands help excrete waste products like urea and lactic acid.

125
Q

Vitamin D Synthesis in skin

A

UV radiation from sunlight triggers the conversion of a precursor in the skin into active vitamin D.

This vitamin D is then used to regulate calcium and phosphate levels in the body.

126
Q

key components of the subcutaneous tissue

A

Loose Connective Tissue

Adipose Tissue

Blood Vessels

Nerves

127
Q

Loose Connective Tissue

A

This layer binds the skin to the underlying tissues and organs.

It contains collagen and elastic fibers that provide flexibility.

128
Q

Nerves

A

Nerve fibers from the dermis extend into the subcutaneous layer.

These nerves transmit sensations like touch, pressure, and pain.

129
Q

Adipose Tissue

A

Also known as fat, this tissue stores triglycerides and insulates the body.

The amount of subcutaneous fat varies between individuals.

130
Q

Blood Vessels

A

The subcutaneous layer contains blood vessels that supply the skin.

These vessels help regulate body temperature and provide nutrients.

131
Q

process of keratinization

A

Stratum Basale (p.8)

The deepest layer of the epidermis, containing a single row of reproducing basal cells.

Stratum Spinosum (p.8)

As new cells are formed in the basal layer, they are pushed upwards.

In this layer, the keratinocytes begin to accumulate more keratin.

Stratum Granulosum (p.8)

The keratinocytes in this layer undergo programmed cell death (apoptosis).

Their nuclei and organelles break down, and they become filled with keratin.

Stratum Corneum (p.8)

The dead, keratinized cells are now the outermost layer of the epidermis.

This tough, protective layer helps prevent water loss and block the entry of harmful substances.
As the keratinocytes move up through the epidermal layers, they become more and more keratinized, eventually sloughing off and being replaced by new cells from the basal layer. This constant renewal and keratinization is essential for maintaining the skin’s barrier function.

132
Q

Vasodilation

A

Vasodilation refers to the widening or dilation of blood vessels, specifically the blood vessels in the skin. This process occurs when the body needs to dissipate excess heat.

133
Q

Vasoconstriction

A

Vasoconstriction refers to the narrowing or constriction of blood vessels, specifically the blood vessels in the skin. This process occurs when the body needs to conserve heat.

134
Q

infection

A

An infection is the invasion and multiplication of pathogenic microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites, within the body’s tissues.

135
Q

inflammation

A

Inflammation is the immune system’s complex biological response to stimuli that are perceived as threats or injuries to the body’s tissues.

136
Q

The 4 main types of bone cells

A

Osteoprogenitor Cells

Osteoblasts

Osteocytes

Osteoclasts

137
Q

Osteoprogenitor Cells (p.16)

A

These are stem cells that can develop into osteoblasts.

They help replenish the bone-forming cells as needed.

138
Q

Osteoblasts

A

Osteoblasts synthesize and secrete the organic components of the bone matrix.

They deposit new bone material and help mineralize the matrix.

139
Q

Osteocytes

A

Osteocytes are mature bone cells that maintain the bone tissue.

They are the most numerous cells in bone and reside within the bone matrix.

140
Q

Osteoclasts

A

Osteoclasts are responsible for breaking down and resorbing old bone tissue.

This allows for the remodeling and reshaping of bones throughout life.

141
Q

The axial skeleton

A

The axial skeleton consists of 80 bones that lie around the longitudinal axis of the body. This includes:

Skull bones (cranium and facial bones)

Auditory ossicles (ear bones)

Hyoid bone

Ribs

Sternum

Vertebral column (vertebrae and intervertebral discs)

The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body and protects vital organs

142
Q

the appendicular skeleton

A

The appendicular skeleton contains 126 bones that make up the upper and lower limbs, as well as the girdles that connect the limbs to the axial skeleton. This includes:

Pectoral (shoulder) girdle (clavicles and scapulae)

Upper limb bones (humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges)

Pelvic (hip) girdle (coxal bones)

Lower limb bones (femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges)

the appendicular skeleton allows for movement and interaction with the external environment.

143
Q

The main parts and structures of a long bone include:

A

refer to cameral roll:

Diaphysis- The shaft or body of the bone, made of compact bone.

Epiphyses- The distal and proximal ends of the bone that form joints, made of spongy bone covered in a layer of compact bone.

Metaphysis- The regions where the diaphysis joins the epiphyses.

Articular Cartilage- A thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the epiphyses where the bone articulates with other bones.

Periosteum- A tough sheath of dense irregular connective tissue and blood vessels surrounding the parts of the bone outside the articular cartilage.

Medullary Cavity- The hollow space within the diaphysis that contains fatty yellow bone marrow.

Endosteum- The thin membrane lining the medullary cavity.

144
Q

Red Bone Marrow

A

Found in the spongy bone of the skull, ribs, sternum, clavicles, vertebrae, and pelvis.

Contains hematopoietic stem cells that produce red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets through the process of hematopoiesis.

Plays a crucial role in the body’s blood cell production.

the red bone marrow is the site of active blood cell production

145
Q

Yellow Bone Marrow

A

Consists mainly of adipose (fat) cells and occupies the cavities of most bones.

Serves as a storage site for triglycerides, providing a reserve of energy for the body.

Can be converted back to red marrow if the body needs to increase blood cell production.

while the yellow bone marrow acts as an energy storage depot for the body

146
Q

4 types of bones

A

Long Bones

Short Bones

Flat Bones

Irregular Bones (p.11)

Found in the vertebrae and some facial bones.

Have complex shapes that don’t fit into the other categories.

147
Q

Long Bones

A

Found in the limbs, such as the femur, tibia, humerus, radius, and phalanges.

Have a greater length than width and consist of a shaft and ends.

148
Q

Short Bones

A

Found in the wrist and ankle, such as the carpals and tarsals.

Are cube-shaped and nearly equal in length and width.

149
Q

Flat Bones

A

Flat Bones

Found in the skull, sternum, ribs, scapulae, and pelvic bones.

Are generally thin and provide protection or large surfaces for muscle attachment.

150
Q

Irregular Bones

A

Found in the vertebrae and some facial bones.

Have complex shapes that don’t fit into the other categories.

151
Q

What is the group name of the little bones in the middle ear?

A

ossicles

152
Q

6 functions of bone

A

Support

The skeleton provides a structural framework that gives shape and support to the body.

The pelvic and lower limb bones support the weight of the body.

Protection

The bones protect vital organs like the brain, heart, and lungs from injury.

Movement

Bones provide attachment points for skeletal muscles, allowing for movement.

Joints between bones facilitate various types of body movements.

Mineral Homeostasis

Bones store minerals like calcium and phosphorus, which are important for many metabolic processes.

Bone can also accumulate harmful elements like lead and radium.

Blood Cell Production

Red bone marrow within certain bones produces red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.

Triglyceride Storage

Yellow bone marrow, consisting mainly of fat cells, stores triglycerides as an energy reserve.

153
Q

Key features that differentiate female and male skeletons

A

the female pelvis is wider and shallower, with a larger pelvic inlet, to accommodate childbirth. In contrast, the male pelvis is narrower and deeper, with a smaller pelvic inlet. These structural differences allow the female pelvis to provide the necessary space for a baby to pass through during delivery.

154
Q

the effect of aging on the skeletal system

A

Decreased bone mass and strength: As we age, our bones tend to lose density and become more brittle, a condition known as osteoporosis. This is because bone resorption by osteoclasts starts to outpace bone deposition by osteoblasts.

Reduced gland function: The number and efficiency of sweat and oil glands decreases with age, leading to drier skin and less effective temperature regulation.

Slower hair growth and graying: Hair follicles and melanocytes (pigment-producing cells) slow down, causing hair to thin, turn gray, and eventually stop growing altogether.

Impaired wound healing: The number of Langerhans immune cells decreases, and the skin’s protective barrier function declines, making older individuals more prone to infections and slower to heal.

Loss of subcutaneous fat and muscle mass: This makes older people more susceptible to pressure ulcers (bedsores) due to reduced cushioning over bony prominences.

155
Q

List the 5 tissues involved in active bone

A

Bone (osseous) tissue

Dense connective tissue

Epithelium

Adipose tissue

Nervous tissue

156
Q

Compact Bone:

A

Organized in concentric rings around osteonic canals

Provides strength and protection

157
Q

Spongy Bone:

A

Irregular network of bony trabeculae with spaces in between

Filled with red bone marrow for blood cell production

Provides lightness and flexibility

158
Q

skull

A

The skull is made up of 22 bones, including 8 cranial bones, 13 facial bones, and the mandible.
* The cranium encloses and protects the brain, provides attachments for muscles, and contains air-filled sinuses that reduce its weight.
* Features of the frontal bone include supraorbital foramina and frontal sinuses.

159
Q

facial skeleton

A

-The maxilla forms the upper jaw, hard palate, floor of
the orbits, sides of the nasal cavity, house the upper
teeth, and contain large maxillary sinuses.
* Palatine bones are L-shaped bones located behind the
maxillae that form the floor of the nasal cavity and hard cavity.
Zygomatic bones make up the cheekbones and join with the temporal bones to form the zygomatic arches.
* The lacrimal bones form part of the medial walls of the orbits.
* Nasal bones form the bridge of the nose.
* The vomer bone makes up a portion of the nasal septum.
- Inferior nasal conchae are fragile, scroll-shaped bones
that support mucous membranes within the nasal cavity.
* The mandible, or lower jawbone, supports the lower teeth and includes a mandibular condyle, coronoid process, and alveolar arch.

160
Q

vertebral column

A

vertebrae and
intervertebral disks

161
Q

thorax

A

The thorax is home to some super important structures, like the heart and the lungs. It’s protected by the ribcage, which is made up of 12 pairs of ribs. These ribs help shield the vital organs inside the thorax.

The thorax also contains the esophagus, which is the tube that carries food from the throat to the stomach. And it houses the trachea, which is the airway that brings air to and from the lungs.

162
Q

pectoral girdle

A

the pectoral girdle is made up of the clavicles (collarbones) and the scapulae (shoulder blades). These bones work together to connect the upper limbs (arms) to the axial skeleton, which includes the skull, ribs, and vertebral column.

163
Q

upper limb

A

The upper limb, also known as the arm, is the part of the body that extends from the shoulder to the hand. It’s made up of several key structures:

The shoulder joint - This is where the upper limb connects to the pectoral girdle. It’s a ball-and-socket joint that allows for a wide range of motion.

The humerus - This is the long, upper arm bone that connects the shoulder to the elbow.

The elbow joint - This hinge joint allows the forearm to flex and extend.

The radius and ulna - These are the two bones of the forearm that connect the elbow to the wrist.

The wrist joint - This joint connects the forearm to the hand and allows for flexion, extension, and rotation.

The hand - Consisting of the carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges, the hand is an incredibly dexterous and versatile part of the upper limb.

Together, all of these structures work in harmony to give the upper limb an amazing range of motion and functionality.

164
Q

pelvic girdle

A

The pelvic girdle is the bony structure that connects the lower limbs (legs) to the axial skeleton, which includes the spine and ribcage. It’s made up of two hip bones, also known as the os coxae or innominate bones.
The pelvic girdle serves several crucial functions:

It provides attachment points for many of the muscles that control the movement of the lower limbs, allowing us to walk, run, and jump. 💪

It helps transfer weight and force from the upper body to the lower limbs, distributing the load across the entire skeletal structure.

It protects the pelvic organs, such as the bladder, rectum, and reproductive organs, from external forces and impacts.

In females, the pelvic girdle undergoes changes during pregnancy to facilitate childbirth.

165
Q

lower limb

A

The lower limb, also known as the leg, is the part of the body that extends from the hip to the foot. It’s made up of several key structures:

The hip joint - This is where the lower limb connects to the pelvic girdle. It’s a ball-and-socket joint that allows for a wide range of motion.

The femur - This is the long, upper leg bone that connects the hip to the knee.

The knee joint - This hinge joint allows the lower leg to flex and extend.

The tibia and fibula - These are the two bones of the lower leg that connect the knee to the ankle.

The ankle joint - This joint connects the lower leg to the foot and allows for flexion, extension, and rotation.

The foot - Consisting of the tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges, the foot is an incredibly complex and versatile part of the lower limb.

Biology 152- Anatomy And Physiology (11 decks)

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