Quiz 4 (Modules 16-19) Flashcards
3 regions of the pharynx
Nasopharynx Oropharynx Laryngopharynx/hypopharynx
Boyle’s law
The pressure of a gas in a closed container is inversely proportional to the volume of the container (when the volume increases the pressure decreases, and when volume decreases the pressure increases)
Pulmonary ventilation
Breathing Inhalation and exhalation
External respiration
Exchange of gases between the blood and the lungs
Internal respiration
Exchange of gases between the blood and tissue cells
Nasal conchae
Three bony projections located on the lateral walls of the nasal cavities Increase the surface area of the cavities providing a very rich supply of blood that warms and moistens incoming air, and mucus that traps foreign particles
Internal nares
Two posterior openings of the nasal cavities that provide a connection between the nose and the pharynx
Paranasal sinuses
Maxillary, frontal, ethmoidal, and sphenoidal sinuses Provide sites for mucus drainage; lighten the skull, warm and moisten air, and provide chambers for speech resonance
Respiratory distress syndrome
• Also called hyaline membrane disease (HMD) • Most common cause of death of newborns (especially premature babies) • Caused by a deficient amount of surfactant • Characterized by difficult breathing, which exhausts the infant
Effects of aging on the respiratory system
Lung capacity decreases because the airways and tissues of the respiratory tract become less elastic, resulting in more rigidity – oxygen delivery to tissue cells is impaired The elderly are more susceptible to diseases such as pneumonia, emphysema, and bronchitis due to the decrease in activity of the macrophages and ciliary action of the epithelial lining of the respiratory tract
Vital capacity
The maximum volume of air that can be expelled from the lungs / The volume of air that can be expelled from the lungs by forcible expiration after the deepest possible inspiration
Tidal air volume
The normal inhalation and exhalation of air into or out of the lungs
Inspiratory reserve volume
The volume of air, over the tidal volume, that can be forced into the lungs
Dead space volume
Air in the conducting zone airways that is not in position to contribute to gas exchange between the alveoli and the blood
How is the bulk of the carbon dioxide transported in the blood?
As the bicarbonate ion(HCO3-) in plasma
The part of the brain which sets the basic rhythm of inspiration and expiration
Medulla
Parts of the brain which contain all of the respiratory control centers
Medulla and pons
Pleurisy
Results from an accumulation of fluid in the pleural cavity
Emphysema
The condition whereby the respiratory alveoli become enlarged and may be replaced by fibrous tissue
Functions of the digestive system
Digestion (breaking down large nutrient molecules), absorption, and elimination
Esophageal hiatus
Opening in the diaphragm where the esophagus passes through
Ileocecal valve
Connects the ileum to the first part of the large intestine; this valve prevents feces from reentering the small intestine
Functions of the large intestine
Absorption of water and electrolytes; synthesis of certain vitamins (vitamin K and certain B vitamins) by intestinal bacteria; and the elimination of feces (defecation)
Liver function tests
Albumin globulinase Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) Gamma-glutamyl-transpeptidase (GGT) Bilirubin
The proper name for baby, or milk, teeth
Deciduous teeth
The two sphincters that keep food in the stomach during digestion are
Cardioesophageal (cardiac) and pyloric sphincters
Gastrin
Secreted by the gastric and duodenal mucosa
Acts to Increase the secretions of the gastric glands
The glands that frequently become inflamed when one gets the mumps
Parotid
In general, what is probably the most important factor involved in determining a person’s basal metabolic rate (BMR)?
The amount of thyroxine produced by the thyroid gland
This hormone, produced by the duodenum, causes an increase in the output of bile by the liver and pancreatic juice rich in bicarbonate ions
Secretin
Cholecystokinin
Stimulates the gall bladder to expel stored bile and increases the output of pancreatic juice.
Segmentation (digestion)
The movement of chyme backward and forward over the intestinal wall to allow maximum nutrient absorption
Enteroendocrine cells in the stomach
release chemical messengers that stimulate the release of gastrin
Crypts of Lieberkuhn
Glands in the small intestine that secrete enzymes that chemically digest proteins and carbohydrates
Functions of the Large Intestine
Absorption of water and electrolytes; synthesis of certain vitamins (vitamin K and certain B vitamins) by intestinal bacteria; and the elimination of feces (defecation).
The left and right lobes of the liver are separated by:
The falciform ligament
What side of the body is the ascending colon on?
Right side
What side of the body is the descending colon on?
Left side
How do the kidneys help regulate blood pH
The kidneys excrete a variable amount of H+ ions into the urine and conserve bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) which buffer H+ in the blood
Path of urine drainage in the kidney
Collecting duct Papillary duct Minor calyx Major calyx Renal pelvis Ureter Urinary bladder
Glomerular filtration
First step of urine production Small substances are filtrated from the glomerulus to the Bowman’s capsule (e.g., water, sodium, potassium, chloride, glucose, uric acid, and creatinine), large molecules are not (e.g. Blood cells and large proteins)
Tubular reabsorption
Tubule cells reabsorb about 99% of the filtered water and many useful solutes and they return to the blood. The return of substances from the filtrate in the tubules to the bloodstream (peritubular capillaries). Most of it occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule Glucose should be completely reabsorbed, 99% of water and sodium is reabsorbed, 50% of urea is reabsorbed Most of the filtrate is reabsorbed in the kidney and returned to the blood vessels The substances not reabsorbed by kidneys remain in the tubules and become urine
Tubular secretion
Renal tubule and duct cells secrete materials such as wastes, drugs, and excess ions, into the fluid
Glomerular filtration rate
GFR The amount of filtrate formed in all the renal corpuscles of both kidneys each minute
Effect of angiotensin II on GFR
Reduces it Angiotensin II is a vasoconstrictor that narrows afferent and efferent arterioles and reduces renal blood flow
Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
Secreted by cells in the atria of the heart Relaxes the glomerular mesangial cells which increases the capillary surface area available for filtration Increases GFR
Diuresis
Elevated urine flow rate, which in turn reduces blood volume
Diuretics
Substances that slow renal reabsorption of water and thereby cause diuresis, which in turn reduces blood volume Caffeine, alcohol, drugs prescribed to treat high blood pressure
Renal papillae
The tips of the renal pyramids. They point toward the center of the kidney
Minor calyces
Funnel-shaped structures that surround the tips of each renal pyramid; their function is to collect urine from the ducts of the pyramids
Capillary beds in the kidney
The kidney is the only organ that has two capillary beds - the glomerulus and the peritubular capillaries (blood passing through the glomerulus remains oxygenated)
Glomerular hydrostatic pressure
The force pushing water and solutes out of the blood therefore no metabolic energy is needed for glomerular filtration
Urea
A waste product derived from the normal breakdown of amino acids
Creatinine
A waste product of muscle metabolism – should all be excreted in urine
Tubular Secretion
This process makes sure that some substances that were reabsorbed into the peritubular capillaries are returned to the renal tubules. Important examples include potassium ions, hydrogen ions, uric acid, and ammonia.
Uric acid
A waste product from the breakdown of nucleic acids.
Ammonia
A waste product from the breakdown of proteins
pH of urine
Usually 6 but can range from 4.5 to 8.0
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
Regulates the levels of urine output: high levels of ADH increase water reabsorption and urine concentration, and lower levels of ADH decrease water reabsorption and dilute the urine
Where is ADH synthesized?
In the hypothalamus
Where is ADH stored before it is secreted into the bloodstream?
In the posterior pituitary gland
Aldosterone
Hormone that helps to regulate fluid balance - stimulates the distal tubules to reabsorb sodium ions (Na+) and water, and to excrete potassium ions (K+)
Aldosterone is released by what glands?
Adrenal glands
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide
Hormone that inhibits the reabsorption of Na+ and water, thereby decreasing blood volume and blood pressure
Angiotensin II
Hormone that raises blood pressure by exerting a powerful constrictor effect on the arterioles
Blood leaving an afferent arteriole in the kidney would enter which structure next?
Glomerulus
Renin
An enzyme produced by the kidneys that helps to regulate blood pressure by catalyzing a reaction that leads to the formation of angiotensin II
Which 2 substances are normally present in the filtrate forced from the glomerular capillaries but does not normally appear in the urine?
Glucose and amino acids
What substance enters the renal tubule by both filtration and secretion?
Creatine
How does ADH affect the nephron?
ADH increases the permeability of the nephron walls to facilitate the tubular reabsorption of water
When you drink alcohol, what is the effect on the production and release of ADH?
It decreases
Androgen
Hormone that promotes the development of masculine characteristics, and promotes libido
Epididymis
Coiled tube which collects the sperm cells that are produced by seminiferous tubules – i.e., provides the site for the maturation of the sperm cells and stores sperm for up to two months
Vas (Ductus) Deferens
A tube that is a direct continuation of the epididymis Passes out of the scrotum and up into the abdominal cavity in the region of the urinary bladder Contains three layers of muscle in its wall that uses peristalsis to move sperm through during ejaculation
Seminal Vesicles
Two hollow glands found on the posterior surface of the urinary bladder Each has a duct that joins with each vas deferens Produce slightly alkaline viscous secretions, rich in nutrients (fructose), that are added to sperm to form semen to nourish the sperm
Ejaculatory Ducts
Formed by the union of the vas deferens and the seminal vesicle duct – 2 cm (1 inch) long; Open into the first part of the urethra
Prostate Gland
Adds alkaline secretions to semen - helps neutralize acidic vaginal fluid Enhances motility as it acts as a liquefying agent
Bulbourethral Glands (Cowper’s Glands)
Paired glands lying on each side of the urethra Add alkaline secretions to semen that neutralizes acid in the urethra Secretions help to lubricate urethra and end of the penis
pH of semen
About 7.5 (slightly alkaline to help neutralize vaginal acidity)
The accessory structures semen passes by are the:
Seminiferous tubules Epididymis (sperm stored until ejaculated) Vas deferens Ejaculatory ducts Urethra (Prostate gland, bulbourethral/Cowper’s glands)
Testosterone
The most important androgen; Synthesized from cholesterol in the testes
Functions of Testosterone
Responsible for the normal growth, development and function of the male sex organs, including sperm cell production Develops and maintains male secondary sex characteristics Has an important growth promoting effect by increasing protein synthesis and decreasing protein catabolism Stimulates the descent of testes before birth
Uterine (Fallopian) Tubes
Carry ova released from the ovaries to the uterus
Infundibulum
The funnel-like end of the uterine tube
Fimbriae
Finger-like projections that sweep the ova into the uterine tube
Where does fertilization normally occur?
In the upper third of the fallopian tube
Stratum functionalis
Innermost layer of the endometrium - sheds during menstruation
Pathway of an Ovum
The ovum is discharged from an ovary (usually monthly) into the pelvic cavity The finger like projections (fimbriae) of the fallopian tube “sweep” the ovum into the tube Peristalsis of smooth muscle and ciliated epithelium propel the ovum toward the uterus If fertilization has not taken place the ovum is shed during the next menstrual period
The menstrual cycle
The monthly rhythmical changes in hormonal secretion and endometrial lining of the uterus that occur during the reproductive years of the female
2 main events that occur in the menstrual cycle
- Ovulation 2. Preparation of the endometrium for implantation should the ovum become fertilized
3 Stages of the Menstrual Cycle
• Menstrual phase (days 1-5) • Proliferative phase (preovulatory phase) (days 5-14) • Secretory phase (days 15-28)
Menstrual Phase
Starts on the first day of menstruation (menstrual period) Upon withdrawal of hormonal support from the endometrium, the lining that had developed during the preovulatory and progestational phases is shed
Proliferative Phase / Preovulatory phase
Begins after the menstrual phase (days 5-14) Several ova and their surrounding follicles start to develop under the influence of FSH; only one ovum and its follicle continue to develop the others are repressed The cells of the developing follicle start to secrete estrogens; just prior to ovulation, there is a marked increase in estrogen, which inhibits GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone) in the hypothalamus, which inhibits production of FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) and causes the endometrium to increase in thickness About 24 hours before ovulation, LH (luteinizing hormone) increases and induces ovulation, the cervical mucus becomes thin, stringy and crystalline, which allows sperm cells to pass through easier
Ovulation
Occurs between the proliferative and the secretory phase: the mature follicle ruptures; the ovum is released and starts to travel to the uterus via the fallopian tube
When does ovulation occur?
Between the proliferative and the secretory phase
Secretory Phase / Progestational phase
Days 15-28 After ovulation, the ruptured follicle stays in the ovary where it increases in size under the influence of LH (luteinizing hormone), to become the corpus luteum; If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum begins to degenerate resulting in decreased levels of progesterone and estrogens, which cause GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone) to increase If fertilization does occur the corpus luteum is maintained
Corpus luteum
Ruptured follicle from a released ovum, located in the ovary Secretes some estrogens, but mainly progesterone, causing the endometrium to continue to thicken and become more vascular
Where are FSH and LH secreted?
Anterior pituitary
Parturition
The act of giving birth
The entire process of spermatogenesis, from production of primary spermatocyte to release on immature cells, takes how long?
68-74 days
The progression of development in spermatogenesis
Spermatogonium; primary spermatocyte; secondary spermatocyte; spermatid sperm cell
Which structures in the testes produce spermatozoa?
Seminiferous tubules
Where do spermatozoa complete their maturation
In the epididymis
The rupture of the Graafian follicle with the release of the oocyte and its associated cells is termed:
Ovulation
The follicle cells of the ovary produce which hormone?
Estrogen
The corpus luteum produces which hormone?
Progesterone
