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Lecture Notes - Instructor Adelson > Quiz 2 Material - Cell Structure and Function > Flashcards

Quiz 2 Material - Cell Structure and Function Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 4 components of cell theory?

A
  • Cells are building blocks of all plant & animal cells
  • Cells are the smallest functioning unit of life
  • Cells are produced through the division of pre-existing cells
  • Each cell maintains homeostasis
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2
Q

What are the two types of cells in the human body?

A

Sex Cells

&

Somatic Cells

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3
Q

What are Sex Cells

A

Gamates

Sperm - male

Female - oocyte

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4
Q

Somatic Cells

A

Every cell in the human body, except Sex cells

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5
Q

Model Cell Consits of

A
  • Cell Membrane
  • Cytoplasm - includes cytosol or ICF
  • Organelles
  • Nucleus
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6
Q

ECF

A

Extracellular Fluid

aka. Interstitial Fluid

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7
Q

Description and 4 major functions of Cell Membrane

A

Membrane - Outer boundary of cell, aka. plasma membrane or plasmalemma (-lemma = membrane)

  1. Physical Isolation - ICF seperated from ECF important to maintain homeostasis
  2. Regulation of exchange - ie. ions, glucose, waste products; serves as guard keeping things in/out respectively
  3. Sensitivity to environment - senses changes in external environment and sends signals inside
  4. Structural Support - stability, rigidity and link to other cells in region
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8
Q

The cell membrane is composed of

A

Lipids

Proteins

Carbohydrates

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9
Q

Phospholipid Bilayer

A
  • Two rows of lipids back to back creating a seperation between in/exterior
  • Head is hydrophilic; Tail is Hydrophobic
  • Cholesterol (steroid) - binds together lipid in membrane, reducing fluidity and giving stability
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10
Q

6 Major Functional Groups of Membrane Proteins

A
  1. Channels - spans width of bilayer; allows small stuff to pass in/out, out/in of the cell
  2. Carrier - Like a revolving door; protein is activated by molecule to pass in or out of the cell
  3. Enzymes - hangs out and is availiable for use in catalyzing a reaction
  4. Receptor - protein with exposed binding site available for coupling with chemical messenger - signals changes inside the cell
  5. Anchors - weave in and out of cell anchoring to external environment and to structures on the inside
  6. Identifiers - proteins bonded to short chains of sugars that are specifically identified by other cells; used by immune system to identify body cells from invading cells
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11
Q

Peripherial vs. integral proteins

A
  • Peripherial - Protiens that sit on one of the surfaces of the membrane; Either aid in maintaining shape or may be enzymes that catalyze reactions inside the cell
  • Integral - span width of membrane; usually involved in transport of substances across membrane.
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12
Q

Cytoplasm

A
  • Generic term for everthing inside the cell membrane excluding the nucleus
  • Consists of : Cytosol and organelles
  • Consistancy is semisolid, like a syrup/molases
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13
Q

Cytosol

A
  • dissimilar to both ECF and IVF
  • fluid of the cytoplasm in which organelles are suspended
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14
Q

Ion Concentration of Na+, Ca+, Cl-, K+

in

ICF vs ECF

A

ICF vs ECF

K+ Higher Lower

Na+ Lower Higher

Cl- Lower Higher

Ca2+ Lower Higher

Pr- Higher Unopposed outside cell

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15
Q

Organelles

A

Internal structures that keep the cell fnctioning normally and independently

  • Membraneous - mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxosomes, nucleus
  • Non-membraneous - cytoskeleton, flagella, ribosomes, proteasones, cilia, centrioles, microvilli
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16
Q

4 Catagories of Cytoskeleton

A
  1. Microfilaments - (actin) anchors cytoskeleton to cell membrane
  2. Thick filaments - (myosin) only in muscle cells - smooth and cardiac; interacts with actin to produce muscle contraction
  3. intermediate filament - strengthens cell
  4. microtubules - form spindle apparatus used in cell division
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17
Q

Centrioles

A
  • involved in making spindle apparutus in cell division
  • if cell lacks centrioles they cannot reproduce
    ie. nerve cells, cardiac muscle cells, Mature RBC’s, Skeletal Muscle cells
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18
Q

Microvilli

A

small fingerlike projections of cell membrane,

Job is to increase the surface area of cell membrane, which will allow for better movement/transfer of “stuff” from one place to another allows for more efficent absorption

ie. Lining of the intestine

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19
Q

Cilia

A
  • Slender projections of cell membrane, made of microtubules
  • Usually found lining areas of respiratory or reproductive tract
  • hairs sweep in one direction, moving substances in desired direction
  • ie coughing byproduct of cilia working
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20
Q

Flagella

A
  • Only seen in sperm cells
  • Long tail that produces a whip like action to propel the sperm where it needs to go
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21
Q

Ribosomes

A
  • Primary function is in protein synthesis
  • if free in the cytoplasm/cytosol proteins made are for the cell
  • if bound to the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum, proteins are for exported
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22
Q

Proteasomes

A
  • contain prote”ase”s - “-ase” indicates enzyme
  • primary function is to digest proteins that are damaged or old
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23
Q

Endoplasmic Reticulum

A
  • Network of membranes in cytoplasm that is attached to the nucleus
  • Smooth - no ribosomes attached; responsible for synthesis of lipids and carbohydrates; responsible for storage of glycogen in liver and skeletal muscle; participates in the detoxification/inactivation of drugs
  • Rough - Ribosomes attached; job is to make proteins and ship them to golgi apparatus
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24
Q

Golgi Apparatus

A
  • Recieving (forming face) /Processing/Shipping (maturing face) center of the cell
  • Recieves proteins from the RER
  • Modifies them to meet needs
  • Ships them via: Lysosomes staying in ICF; Secretory vessicle for stuff going to ECF; Membrane Renewal Vessicle - for repairs to damaged cell wall structures
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25
Q

Lysosomes

A
  • Shipped out by Golgi Apparatus
  • Contains up to 40 digestive enzymes which are toxic to the cell itself and must be contained
  • Merges with other vessicles temporarily to breakdown “trash”
  • Used for breakdown of contractile tissue when not in use.
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26
Q

Peroxisomes

A
  • responsible for the breakdown of fatty acids and other organinc molecules
  • byproduct is Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2 and the production of Free Radicals (which cause secondary cell death)
  • Free radicals are bad because they kill healthy and damaged cells)
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27
Q

Mitochondria

A
  • Powerhouse of the cell
  • Production of ATP
  • actual function is cell respiration = process of making ATP
  • where areobic metabolism takes place
  • Double membrane organelle
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28
Q

Nucleus

A
  • Brain of the cell
  • Control center for cellular respiration
  • Stores all genetic information
  • RNA/Proteins
  • w/o nucleus cell will degrage and die within 3-4 months
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29
Q

Anerobic vs Areobic Metabolism

A
  • anerobic - without oxygen, less efficent, takes place in cytosol, produces lactic acid as byproduct
  • areobic (with oxygen) more efficent, takes place in mitochondria
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30
Q

Membrane Transport

*What it is and types

A
  • Movement of “stuff” In/Out across the membrane
  • Diffusion = Osmosis and Filtration
  • Carrier Mediated Transport = Active Transport/Facilitated Diffusion
  • Vesicular Transport
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31
Q

Diffusion

A
  • Passive process resulting from random movement and collision of particles
  • Movement from High concentration to Low Concentration ie. Food Coloring
  • concentration gradient exists when there is a difference between High and Low concentration
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32
Q

5 factors that affect Diffusion

A
  1. Distance - the further the distance the slower the particles move
  2. Size - smaller particles move faster
  3. Temperature - as temp. increases, rate increases; ie sugar in coffee
  4. Gradient Size - The > the distance the > the rate
  5. Electrical Forces
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33
Q

What are characteristics of things that are likely to diffuse easily across a cell membrane?

A
  • Particles that are small and liquid soluble
  • Because of small size and ability to interact with lipid portion of membrane, they are able to pass without
  • Examples: Alcohol, fatty acids, steroids, disolved gasses - O2
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34
Q

Carrier Mediated Facilitated Diffusion

A
  • Passive transport (require no use of ATP)
  • Uses concentration gradient to move from In/Out
  • Channel Protein that may be open for small particles to pass in/out (ie regular diffusion) Open or Leak Gated
  • **Ligand Gated: ** Requiring specific chemical to open
  • Voltage Gated: difference in charges in that area
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35
Q

Osmosis

A
  • Movement of water across membrane (only water, not a solution)
  • Moves down concentration gradient
  • Moving from HIGH water concentration to area of LOW water concentration to eliminate the gradient
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36
Q

Isotonic

A
  • Solute and solution are equal in/out of the cell
  • Allows water to pass in and out of the cell freely
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37
Q

Hypotonic

A
  • Concentration of solution is lower outside the cell
  • Water moves into the cell toward higher solute concentrationin cell, can cause cell to lyse
  • Lyse; -lysis = to burst
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38
Q

Hypertonic

A
  • Solution is higher than that of the cell.
  • Water moves out of the cell to try to even out the concentration; can cause crenation
  • Crenation - Shriveling of cell
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39
Q

Osmotic Pressure

A
  • Indication of force applied by water as it moves across a membrane into a solution
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40
Q

Hydrostatic pressure

A
  • Amount of pressure required to stop osmotic flow
  • pushing against fluid generates hydrostatic pressure
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41
Q

Filtration

A
  • Passive
  • Principal of Hydrostatic pressure
  • Passage of a solvent and disolved substances across a membrane
  • The Kidneys are the bloods filtration system
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42
Q

Water always leaves _____-tonic solutions in favor of ______-tonic solutions.

A

Hypotonic solutions in favor of Hypertonic solution.

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43
Q

How does osmotic pressure relate to hydrostatic pressure in the capilaries?

A
  • Water always leaves the hypotonic solution, pushing its way into the hypertonic solution. This “pushing” is the osmotic pressure. It turns out that the blood is hypertonic to the extracellular fluid. So water is always trying to push its way into the blood vessel due to osmotic pressure. The pressure due to osmosis remains constant across the entire capillary.
  • The blood pressure, or hydrostatic pressure of the blood (a.k.a., outward hydrostatic pressure) is an outward pressure. That’s because the blood is pushing on the walls of the capillary as it runs through the capillary from arteriole to venule ends. This pressure, however, is not constant throughout the capillary. You see, there is more pressure on the arteriole side because it is closer to the heart (which is applying the pressure in the first place). So it starts off at the arteriole side with a higher pressure than at the venule side.
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44
Q

Carrier Mediated Transport: Symport vs. Antiport

A
  • Symport = Cotransport - where molecules move in same direction through a carrier protein
  • Antiport = Counterport - Where molucule binds to specific spot enabling carrier to transform so molecule can enter/exit cell; different site on same carrier for different molecule can now attach and use door for passage in/out of the cell; molecules traveling in opposite directions.
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45
Q

Carrier Mediated: Active Transport

A
  • Requires Energy in form of ATP
  • Molecules move in/out against concentration gradient; ie paddling upstream
  • The sodium-potassium pump is an example of Active Transport
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46
Q

Vessicular Tansport

A
  • Active transport, requires use of ATP
  • Movement of Large Molecules into or out of the cell by using vessicles
  • Vessicles are membrane enclosed sacs
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47
Q

Endocytosis

A
  • Active Transport, requiring the use of ATP
  • For transport of large molecules into the cell
  • 3 Types:
  1. Receptor Mediated Endocytosis
  2. Pinocytosis
  3. Phagocytosis
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48
Q

Endocytosis: Receptor Mediated Endocytosis

A
  • Active transport
  • Ligand initiated ingestion of moleculesby a cell.
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49
Q

Endocytosis: Pinocytosis

A
  • Active Transport
  • Pinocytosis = Cell Drinking
  • Ingestion of ECF into the vesicles; which bind with Lysosomes and hydrolyze (break down) the molecules
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50
Q

Endocytosis: Phagocytosis

A
  • Active Transport
  • Phagocytosis = Cell Eating
  • Common example is Macrophages used by WBC’s to ingest bacteria/pathogens
  • Phagosome - vessicle that ingests molecule, frequently link up with lysosomes to used digestive enzymes to destroy or breakdown bacteria/substances
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51
Q

Exocyotsis

A
  • Active Transport
  • Process of expelling contents/substance of vesicle from cell into ECF
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52
Q

Transmembrane Potential

A
  • occurs where charges are held apart by a cell membrane
  • Protein Anions are primary reason cell is more negative on the inside.
  • opposite charges attract; when seperated by cell membreane it creates a Potential Difference
  • Unit of measure is in millivolts
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53
Q

When charges are held apart by a cell membrane it is considered to have ________ ________.

A
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54
Q

Resting Potential

A

The transmembrane potential of an undisturbed cell.

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55
Q

The Resting potential of fat cells are?

A

-40mV

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56
Q

The Resting potential of Thyroid cells are?

A

-50mV

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57
Q

The Resting potential of Neuron cells are

A

-70mV

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58
Q

The Resting potential of Cardiac Atrial cells are?

A

-80mV

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59
Q

The Resting potential of Cardiac Ventrical cells are?

A

-90mV

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60
Q

Nucleic Acids are the building blocks of _____ & ______.

A

DNA & RNA

  • DNA - Dexiribose has more OH molecules - Double stranded; Used for long term storage of genetic instructions; never leaves nucleus; more stable less reactive.
  • RNA - Ribose; single stranded; used for transcription and creation of proteins from nucleus to ribosome; less stable more reactive
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61
Q

Nuclear Pores

A

Large pores in nucleolus which allow the exit of RNA

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62
Q

Basics of Protein Synthesis

Transcription

Translation

A
  • Unwinding of DNA into single strands
  • Transcription RNA inverse of DNA strand, then called mRNA
  • mRNA leaves nucleus and travels to Ribosome to facilitate translation
  • Translation - use of RNA to asemble a linear chain of amino acids; uses tRNA (transfer) and rRNA (ribosomal)
  • 3 Nucleotides = 1 amino acid
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63
Q

Names for DNA in different fomations

A
  • **Chromatin ** - Loosely coiled DNA
  • **Chromasome - ** Tightly coliled, 23 Pairs; Coiled for use in replication
  • Histones - when coiled up it is wrapped around these
  • Double Helix is DNA in its coiled form
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64
Q

The Cell Life Cycle - 3 Stages

A
  1. DNA Replication
  2. Mitosis
  3. Cytokinesis
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65
Q

The Cell Life Cycle: DNA Replication

A
  • G0 - Interphase - waiting, not actively participating in replication, or prep for division
  • G1 - Standard daily life, duplication of organelles, normal cell functions, protein synthesis
  • S - Replication of DNA
  • G2 - Additional Protein synthesis, preparing for mitosis
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66
Q

Parts of a duplicated chromasome

A
  • Chromasome - two sister chromatides joined by centromere
  • Chromatid - one omplete set of DNA; duplicate of sister chromatid, with exception of mutations
  • Centromere - Part of chromasome that links sister chromatids
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67
Q

The Cell Life Cycle: Mitosis

A

4 Phase process in cell division

  1. Prophase
  2. Metaphase
  3. Anaphase
  4. Telophase
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68
Q

Mitosis : Prophase

A
  • Chromatids attached and present
  • Spindles begin to form
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69
Q

Mitosis : Metaphase

A
  • Chromasomes lined up on midline
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70
Q

Mitosis : Anaphase

A
  • Begin to seperate
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71
Q

Mitosis : Telophase

A
  • Cleavage Furrow forms
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72
Q

Cytokinesis

A
  • Complete when seperated into two individual cells
  • Once seperate cycle begins again at G0 - Interphase
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73
Q

Mutation

A
  • a mistake in DNA replication
  • may lead to the steady increase in the rate of cell division
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74
Q

Neoplasm

A
  • Tumor - abnormal growth of cells
  • may produce swelling/mass
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75
Q

Malignant Vs. Benign

A
  • Malignant - when tumors spread to other tissues
  • Benign - tumors that are confined to epithelium or connective tissues
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76
Q

Metastasis

A
  • When tumor has spread to distant tissues, problem in multiple location
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77
Q

Cancer

A
  • Characterized by illness in body that results from mutations
  • disrupts normal body functions (could be just one function)
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78
Q

In early stages of cancer cells begin to _____ their resemblence to _________ cells.

A

lose their resemblance to normalized cells.

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79
Q

Lymph system and its relationship to Cancer

A
  • Lymphatic system - filter system of body- picks up cancer cells
  • Cancer uses Lymph system as a mode of transportation to spread throughout the body
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80
Q

Other ways cancer grows

A
  • Due to rapid cell growth - body supplies more blood vessels and nutrient to region for growth
  • This increases rate of development at the expense of surrounding tissues
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81
Q

Tissues

A

Group of cells working together to preform similar function

4 Types

  1. Epithelial - Linings/coverings of internal/external surfaces of body
  2. Connective - Fills internal spaces, structural support, transport of stuff in blood *Most variable
  3. Muscle - Specialized for contraction; skeletal/cardiac, walls of hollow organs
  4. Nervous - Communication in form of electrical impulses between different locations in body
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82
Q

Epithelia

A

Epithelia: layers of cells that cover internal/external structures

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83
Q

Glands

A
  • structures that produce fluid secretions
  • derived from or associated with epithelia
  • ie. mucous membranes glandst - fluid is secreted onto epithelial surface
  • Classified as endocrine - internal secretions or exocrine - secretions to body surface
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84
Q

Characteristics of Epithelia

A

Epithelia (plural) Epithelium (singular)

  • Cells bound closely together
  • Polarity - one side is always bound to the basal lamina and one side exposed; like a top and bottom
  • avascular - nutrients must come from attached/exposed surface
  • have stem cells - ability to make new cells on regular basis - important due to harsh conditions
  • Exposed surface often has cilia or microvili
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85
Q

Epithelia classifications:

A
  • Simple - one layer; or Stratified - > 1 layer; and can be andy of the following
  • Squamous - Flat
  • Cuboidal - Cube
  • Columni - Columnar
86
Q

Functionality of epithelial tissues is dependent on tissue maintaining it’s _______.

A

1.

87
Q

Epithelial Tissue: Intercellular connections - 2 catagories

A
  1. CAMS - Cell Adhesion Molecules - transmembrane proteins that connect large areas of the cell membrane
  2. Cell Junctions - Tight - lipid portion of cell membrane, joined by locking membrane proteins

Gap - connexion - junction between excitable cells allowing for rapid passage of ions

Demosomes - hemidemosomes - durable interconnection of cells between CAMS and proteoglyans

buttondesmosomes

88
Q

Epithelial Cells: Attachment to basal lamina

A
  • Basal Lamina = Basement Layers
  • allows epithelial cells to be seperated from connective tissues
  • acts as filter only allowing water and small molecules to pass through
89
Q

Epithelial Cells: Maintainence and repair

A
  • contain stem cells = germ cells = germinative cells
  • due to exposure to harsh environment, need ability to regenerate
90
Q

Connective Tissue - Major Divisions and Functions

In Common

A

Key Features in Common

  1. all specialized
  2. made of ground substance - space filler, syrup like consistancy
  3. all contain extracellular proteins
91
Q

Connective Tissue - Major Divisions and Functions

Variable Functions

A
  1. Support
  2. Transport
  3. Protection
  4. Energy Storage
  5. Heat/Warmth
92
Q

Catagories of extracellular proteins

A
  • Connective Tissue Proper: Loose (Adipose), Dense (tendons)
  • Fluid Connective Tissue: suspended in water-like matrix : Blood, Lymph
  • Supporting Connective Tissue: Smaller variety od densely packed extracellular fiber: Bone, Cartilage
93
Q

Membranes

A
  • usually epitelial+connective tissue
  • usually a physical barrier
  • sometimes they enclose fluid
  • 4 Main types: Mucous, Serous, cutaneous, synovial
94
Q

Mucous Membrane

A
  • Epithelial Tissue + Connective tissue + Gland
  • Gland secretes fluid onto the epithelial surface
  • most of the time wet and lined with mucous
95
Q

Serous Membrane

A
  • Pair of linings that is seperated by fluid
  • allows for the lubrication for chaning size, and to cushion organs
  • Visceral lining - lines the organ
  • Parietal Lining - Lines Cavity
  • Serous Fluid fills space between linings
96
Q

Cutaneous Membrane

A
  • Waterproof covering exterior of the body
97
Q

Synovial Membrane

A
  • Lining of the inside of your joints
  • Lubricates joints
98
Q

Muscle Tissue

A
  • Responsible for muscle contration and movement
  • 3 Categories
    • Smooth Muscle - non striated - involuntary
    • Cardiac Muscle - striated - involuntary
    • Skeletal Muscle - striated - voluntary
  • Striated - Linear and organized arrangement of Actin and myosin
  • Non-Striated - not linear arrangement of actin and myosin
99
Q

Nervous Tissue

A
  • Conduction of impulses from 1 part of the body to another
    • Neurons - nerve cells
    • neuroglia - supporting cells
100
Q

Tissue Injury and Repair

Two categories

A
  • Inflammation
  • regeneration
101
Q

Inflammation

A
  • many stimuli: distortion, impact, penetration, chemical irritant, extreme temperature, abrasion, infection
  • can cause damage and cell death
  • Damaged cells release Prostaglandin/proteins/K+
  • characterized by redness/warmth/swelling/pain
  • increased blood flow, histamine release
102
Q

Regeneration

A
  • Lays foundation for repair
  • fibroblasts - make fibrous tissue (scar tissue)
  • Remodeling - overtime, ability to return to normal
103
Q

Necrosis

A
  • cell death within hours of injury
  • lysosomes begin to digest damaged cell and parts
  • build up of pus - Abcess - Puss cannot escape
104
Q

Nervous System

A

Control system of body

105
Q

Central Nervous System - CNS

is located in

A

Brain and Spinal Cord

106
Q

Peripheral Nervous System - PNS

is

A

Everything else: including spinal nerves and cranial nerves

107
Q

Peripheral Nervous system breaks down into

A

Efferent Division (Motor)

&

Afferent Division (Sensory)

108
Q

Efferent Division

A

aka Motor Division

Information traveling from Brain and Spinal Column to other parts of the body

109
Q

Afferent Division

A

aka Sensory Division

carries information from other parts of the body to the brain and spinal cord

110
Q

Afferent Division breaks into (unofficial categories)

A

Visceral - Internal organs sensing change in internal organ

&

Somatic - relays “something” about the environment ie table is smooth, clothes soft etc. to the brain

111
Q

Efferent Division breaks into

A

Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

&

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

112
Q

Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

controls

A

Motor Control of Skeletal Muscle

Voluntary/Involuntary - includes reflexes

113
Q

Autonomic Nervous System - ANS

breaks into

A

Sympathetic Division

&

Parasympathetic Division

114
Q

Autonomic Nervous System is responsible for

A

Motor control of everything but skeletal muscle

ie. Cardiac, Smooth, glandular secretions etc

115
Q

Hirearchy of Nervous System

A

Nervous System

  • CNS - Brain & Spinal Cord
  • PNS - Everything Else
    • Afferent - Sensory
      • Somatic -
      • Visceral -
    • Efferent - Motor
      • Somatic Nervous System - Voluntary
      • Autonomic Nervous System - Involuntary Actions
        • Sympathetic Division -
        • Parasympathetic Division -
116
Q

Neuron

A

The functional unit of the nervous system

117
Q

Dendrites

A

Where the neuron recieves the information

118
Q

Synaptic Terminal

A

aka: Synaptic Knob, Bouton

Where information is sent out

119
Q

Axon Hillock

A

All or nothing point of Neuron

If input is large enough to reach axon hillock, charge will procede down axon to Synaptic terminal

120
Q

Synapse

Pre/Post Synaptic Neuron

Synaptic Cleft

Neurotransmitter

A

Synapse - Location where two neurons come together and share information

Presynaptic Neuron - sending of information via chemical neurotransmitter when elicited by action potential

Postsynaptic Neuron - dendrites recieve signal which excites/inhibits signal

Synaptic Cleft -gap between pre and post synaptic neurons

Neurotransmitter - specific chemical agent released by a presynaptic cell, on excitation, that crosses the synaptic gap to stimulate or inhibit the postsynaptic cell

121
Q

Functional Classes of Neurons

A
  • Sensory Neurons
  • Motor Neurons
  • Interneurons
122
Q

Sensory Neurons

A

Deliver information from perriphery via sensory receptors to the CNS

  • Composed of Afferent neuron fibers relaying:
    • somatic - sensing a change in external environment
    • visceral - sensing some change in internal organ
123
Q

Motor Neurons

A

carry instructions from CNS to peripheral effectors

  • Somatic - Skeletal Muscle movement
  • Visceral - everything else - Cardiac Muscle - cardiac/smooth muscle; glandular,
124
Q

Sympathetic VS Parasympathetic

A
  • Oppose each other in autonomic function

Homeostasis could be described as a balance between Parasympathetic (rest and digest) & Sympathetic (Fight of Flight)

  • Generally, the sympathetic nervous system releases a chemical called norepinephrine, which is excitatory to neurons, from its postsynaptic neurons.
  • The parasympathetic nervous system releases a chemical called acetylcholine from its postsynaptic neurons.
125
Q

Interneurons

A
  • Coordination of information between sensory and motor neurons
  • Located primarily in brain, redirect information so appropriate response occurs
126
Q

3 components of homeostasis and their parallels in nervous system

A
  1. Receptor - Sensory Neurons
  2. Control Center - Interneurons
  3. Effector - Motor Neurons
127
Q

Neuroglia

A

aka: Glia Cells/Supportive Cells

Glue that holds Nervous System together

128
Q

4 Types of Neroglia in CNS

A
  1. Apendymal Cells
  2. Astrocytes
  3. Oligodendricytes
  4. Micro Glia
129
Q

2 Types of Neroglia in PNS

A
  1. Schwann Cells
  2. Satellite Cells
130
Q

Apendymal Cells

A
  • Belongs to CNS
  • Forms lining of central canal and ventricles where CSF is found
131
Q

Astrocytes

A
  • Found in CNS
  • surround capillaries responsible for blood-brain barrier
  • regulate passage of “stuff” crossing into interstitial fluid between neurons
  • regulate ion concentrations in interstitial fluid
132
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A
  • Blongs to CNS
  • Forms Mylein Sheath that is rolled around axon; flattened out like a pancake squeezing out cytoplasm
  • Membrane is primarily lipid that creates insulation
  • Internodes are the myelin sheath between Nodes of Ranvier - the space between oligodendrocytes
133
Q

Microglia

A
  • Belong to CNS
  • Engulf cell debris and waste products
134
Q

Schwann Cells

A
  • Belongs to PNS
  • PNS version of Oligodendrocytes
  • Myelin sheath that wraps peripherial axons
135
Q

Satellite Cells

A
  • Belongs to PNS
  • PNS version of Astrocytes
  • Surround cellbodies of neurons and regulate exchange with interstitial environment
136
Q

Chemical Gradient

A
  • Concentration Gradient based on the # of ions of a particular kind
  • each chemical has its own gradient and will look to equalize it own concentration
137
Q

Leak Channels

A
  • Allow free movement of a particular ion in/out of a cell
  • Usually specific to one type of ion
138
Q

Electrical Gradient

A
  • Exists alongside Chemical gradient
  • Electrical gradient may move chemical in/out based on charge of ECF vs ICF environment
139
Q

Current

A
  • movement of charges to eliminate the potential difference
  • ie fixing the electrical or chemical gradients
140
Q

Cell membrane as it relates to Current

A
  • Becomes a barrier that creates resistance by restricting the flow of current
141
Q

Resistance

A
  • how much the barrier restricts the flow of current
142
Q

Electrochemical Gradient

A

Sum of all Electrical and Chemical factors that determine the direction of ion flow

For example:

  • K+ wants to move out of the cell due to concentration gradient from Hi to Low; however because the presence of the Protein Anion and the overall negative charge inside the cell, the K+ is attracted, and wants to pass back into the cell.
  • Na+ wants to move into the cell due to concentration gradient between ECF and ICF; and the electrical gradient which is negative inside cell and attractive to Na+
143
Q

Polarized

A

meaning with charge

144
Q

Depolarized

A
  • adding positive charge
  • Becoming less negative
  • moving toward zero
  • change in ion flow ⇒ becoming more more positive
145
Q

Hyperpolarized

A
  • When cell moves more negative towards resting potential
    *
146
Q

Significance of Na+K+ in maintaining

resting membrane potential

A
  • Na+K+ Pump maintains the resting membrane potential across by pumping sodium out of the cell and potassium into cell against concentration gradients.
  • Enables cells ability to depolarize and propogate an electrical impule to the synapse
147
Q

Graded Potential

A
  • propogated in a graded and decremental fashion
    • Propogated - Charge spreads outward in all directions
    • Graded - Vary in size in relation to size of chemical input
    • Decremental - decreases in size as it moves further from point of orgin
148
Q

Action Potential

A
  • Propogated changes in transmembrane potential
  • once initiated it will affect the entire excitable membrane
  • All or nothing, must meet threshold @ axon hillock to initiate Action Potential all the way to Synapse
  • Not decremental or graded
149
Q

Threshold

A

minimum stimulus required to form an action potential

150
Q

Steps to the Formation of an Action Potential

A
  1. The presynaptic neuron sends neurotransmitters to postsynaptic neuron. (A chemical message)
  2. Once the threshold of excitation is reached (Axon Hillock) the neuron will fire an action potential.
  3. Na+ channels open and Na+ is forced into the cell by the concentration gradient and the
    electrical gradient. depolarizing the neuron.
  4. K+ channels open (@ -30mV) and K+ is forced out of the cell by the concentration gradient and the
    electrical gradient. The neuron continues to depolarize.
  5. The Na+ channels close at the peak of the action potential (+30mV). The neuron starts to repolarize. The K+ channels close, but they close slowly and K+ leaks out.
  6. The neurotransmitter is released to the postsynaptic neuron
  7. The resting potential(-70mV) is overshot and the neuron falls to a -90mV (hyperpolarized)
  8. The Na+/K+ pump then starts to pump 3Na+ ions out for every 2K+ ions it pumps in, some K+ leaks out synapse.
  9. The neuron returns to resting potential
151
Q

Absolute Refractory Period

A
  • period of time when neuron is unavailable to refire
  • From time it leaves it’s resting potential -70mV, depolarizes yo +30mV and returns to -70mV
  • Like Toilet - the time when toilet is flushed until it has minimum amt. of water necessary to flush again.
152
Q

Relative Refractory Period

A
  • Period of time after cell has depolarized and returned to initial resting potential; however cell is now in hyperpolarization phase and is not best suited for reconduction
  • Analogous to being able to flush the toilet before it is optimal to do so.
153
Q

Characteristics of Unmylenated Neurons

A
  • Continuously Propogatate - local current depolarizes adjacent membrane
  • Can’t travel backwards (True for all AP’s)
154
Q

Myelinated Neuron

A
  • Oligodendrocytes/Schwanns Cells that wrap around axon,
  • Produces salutatory conduction/propogation as nerve impulse jumps from node to node along signal path
155
Q

Two types of synapses

A
  • Electrical - does not require chemical nerotransmitter
  • Chemical - common in cardiac cells, requires use of nerotransmitter; *makes up majority of synapses
156
Q

Ionotropic

A
  • is a special kind of effect of a hormone on its target.
  • The hormone activates or deactivates ionotropic receptors (ligand-gated ion channels).
  • The effect can be either positive or negative, whether the effect is a depolarization or a hyperpolarization respectively.
157
Q

Metabotropic

A
  • effects some sort of metabolic activity inside the cell
  • ie. second messengers are molecules that relay signals from receptors on the cell surface to target molecules inside the cell
158
Q

Arrival at the synapse

A
  1. AP arrives at synaptic knob
  2. Voltage changes allow opening of Ca2+ voltage gated chanels entry of Ca2+ions
  3. Entry of Ca2+ ions allows vessicles containing nerotransmitters to fuse with membrane and excytosis of neurotransmetters into synaptic clef
  4. Neurotransmitter binds to ligand gated channel on post synaptic membrane, inhibitory/excititory transmission follows
  5. Neurotransmitter broken down or taken up into presynaptic membrane
159
Q

What are the five basic functions of all living things?

A

The five basic functions that all living things share are:

  • responsiveness
  • growth
  • reproduction
  • movement
  • metabolism.
160
Q

What is the difference between the study of anatomy and the study of physiology?

A

Anatomy is the study of internal and external structures.

Physiology is the study of how living organisms perform their vital functions.

161
Q

What is pathophysiology?

A

Pathophysiology is the study of the effects of disease on the body.

Pathophysiology can be broken down into acute and chronic illnesses and how they affect the body.

162
Q

Can you list in order from most simple to most complex the levels of organization in the human body?

A
  • Molecular/Chemical
  • Cellular
  • Tissues
  • Organs
  • Organ Systems
  • Organism
163
Q

Can you list the 11 organ systems of the human body?

A
  • Skeletal
  • Integumentary
  • Endocrine
  • Cardiovascular
  • Lymphatic
  • Digestive
  • Reproductive
  • Respiratory
  • Nervous
  • Muscular
  • Urinary/Renal
164
Q

How would you describe a kneecap injury (laceration, minor bleeding) using directional terminology?

A

The patient suffered an anterior laceration on the surface of the patella, with superficial bleeding.

165
Q

What sectional plane is commonly associated with CT scan imaging?

A

A CT scan commonly captures images of the transverse plane.

166
Q

What are the two major functions of body cavities? How are these functions accomplished?

A

The two major functions of body cavities are to:

  • protect delicate organs
  • permit changes in size and shape of organs.

They do this by providing a lining to each organ (visceral) and their associated cavity(parietal).

They space between the two linings is filled with fluid which acts as a cushion, allowing linings to slide past each other without creating friction e.g. the lungs while breathing, or the stomach after ingesting a large meal.

167
Q

What landmark divides the abdomen into four quadrants? What abdominal organs can be found in each quadrant?

A

The umbilical or naval is at the center of the four quadrants.

The quadrants contain the following organs:
RUQ – Gallbladder, Ascending colon, Liver, Portion of Small Intestine
RLQ – Appendix, Cecum, Portion of Small Intestine, Portion of bladder
LUQ – Stomach, Pancreas, Portion of Small Intestine, spleen
LLQ – Descending colon, Sigmoid colon, Portion of Small Intestine

168
Q

What is homeostasis?

What are the components of homeostatic regulation?

A

Homeostasis is the underlying principal of A&P. It is the existence of a stable internal environment necessary to preserve normal body function, failure to maintain leads to disease/illness, which without intervention results in death.

The Three Components are Receptor, Control Center, Effector

The key components of homeostatic regulation are intrinsic and extrinsic regulation.

  • Intrinsic is the local change or automatic adjustment in a cell, tissue, organ or organ system in response to an internal environment change.
  • Extrinsic is a commanded change or action, specifically found with the endocrine or nervous systems.
169
Q

What is the difference between positive and negative feedback?

A
  • Negative feedback is a variation outside of normal limits. In the case of negative feedback the effector opposes the original stimulus, attempting to minimize change therefore maximizing survival.
  • Positive feedback the initial feedback is exaggerated and reinforced causing a change that brings the body further from homeostasis, after a time this feedback will be turned off and the body will return to homeostasis, eg. Digestion.
170
Q

Why is the understanding of homeostasis crucial in the study of the human body?

A

Understanding what is “normal” in the human body and how the body compensates for normal body functions can help us understand how it compensates for injuries and illness. Developing a better idea of homeostasis will enable us to develop better differential diagnoses and comprehensive patient care.

171
Q

What is an Atom? What are the three subatomic particles and their respective charges?

A
172
Q

What factors determine whether or not an atom is likely to form a chemical bond?

A

The likely-hood that an atom will form a chemical bond is determined by the number of electrons in its valence shell.

Atoms that have +/- 1 to 2 electrons from having a full valence shell are the most likely to make chemical bonds.

If the valence shell is full it is considered inert and is unable to readily form a chemical bond.

173
Q

What is the chemical symbol for potassium? For sodium? For carbon? For oxygen?

A

Potassium = K

Sodium = Na

Carbon = C

Oxygen = O

174
Q

What is a molecule? What is a compound?

A

A molecule is comprised of more than one atom of the same element bonded together.

A compound consists of > 2 elements bonded together.

Compounds gain new chemical properties when they bond.

175
Q

How do ionic bonds form?

A

Ionic bonds are formed by the transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another.

A common example of this is Sodium Chloride, where the Na atom donates an electron to the Cl atom changing their resultant charges to Na- and Cl+.

This resulting charge forms the ionic bond between the atoms, because opposites attract.

176
Q

What is the difference between an ionic bond and a covalent bond?

A

Ionic bonds gain or lose an electron from respective atoms;

Covalent bonds share electrons in their valence shell so that each atom is able to become stable.

177
Q

What is a reversible reaction? What is dynamic equilibrium?

A

A reversible reaction can take place in either direction; ie. A + B ⇔ AB

or seperatley

Synthesis: A + B ⇒ AB;
Decomposition Synthesis: AB ⇒A+B.

In dynamic equilibrium the reversible reaction is taking place simultaneously at the same rate

178
Q

Can you define and give examples of inorganic compounds found in the human body?

A

Inorganic compounds largely don’t contain H and C, examples of these compounds found in the body are:
CO2/O2 - found at all times in the cardiovascular system
H2O – Water makes up to 2/3rds of total body weight

179
Q

Can you list three reasons why water is such an important component of the human body?
Water plays a crucial role in the body because:
It makes up a majority of the total body weight
It is a solvent used for creating solution and creating a medium for chemical reactions
It has a high heat capacity which helps it to maintain or absorb heat before changing body temperature.

A

Water plays a crucial role in the body because:

  • It makes up a majority of the total body weight
  • It is a solvent used for creating solution and creating a medium for chemical reactions
  • It has a high heat capacity which helps it to maintain or absorb heat before changing body temperature.
180
Q

What is an acid? What is a base?

A

An acid is any substance that breaks apart to release a Hydrogen ion, strong acids dissociate completely in a solution;

A Base is any substance that breaks apart and releases OH- (hydroxide ion)

181
Q

What is the relationship between hydrogen ion concentration and pH?

A

The [H+] or hydrogen ion concentration and pH have a direct relationship.

The higher the [H+] the higher the acidity, and the lower the pH value.

182
Q

What is the role of a buffer? Why is Tums a good buffer for stomach acid?

A

The role of the buffer is to resist large swings of pH in the body.

Buffers release Hydrogen ions (acting as an acid) when the pH begins to rise, and binding Hydrogen ion (acting as a base) when pH drops.

Tums works by neutralizing the acidity of stomach acid by binding Hydrogen ion. The bi-product of the Tums reaction is H2O.

183
Q

What are the categories of organic compounds found in the body?

A

Organic compounds are categorized into: lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids – High E bonds

  • They always contain C & H
  • May contain O
  • Occasionally contain N & P
  • May be soluble in water
  • Are always covalent bonds
184
Q

. What kind of carbohydrate is glycogen? Why is this important in the body?

A
  • Glycogen is a polysaccharide.
  • It is a larger molecule composed of glucose in branched chains.
  • It is stored in skeletal muscle and liver cells.
  • When blood glucose gets low, liver cells break down their storage reserves of glycogen and give the body a boost.
185
Q

What is solubility? Why is it important that lipids are not usually soluble in water?

A
  • Solubility is the ability to disolve/ionize in water.
  • It is important that lipids are generally non-soluble because phospholipids are used in the formation of cell membranes, without which life could not exist.
186
Q

Can you list and explain three functions of proteins in the human body?

A

3 major functions of proteins in the human body are:

  • Fibrous proteins provide the chief building materials of the body.
  • Enzymes are globular proteins which act as biological catalysts.
  • Plasma Proteins function reversibly as acids or bases to help regulate wide swings of pH in the blood stream.
187
Q

What are nucleic acids? Why are they important?

A
  • Nucleic acids are the largest molecules in the body, composed of CHONP.
  • They are important because they contain RNA and DNA as well as are responsible for the formation of ATP.
  • RNA works with DNA to synthesize proteins.
  • DNA encodes the information used to build proteins, directs synthesis of structural proteins, and controls all the features and characteristics of each person.
188
Q

What is the significance of a “high-energy bond”?

A
  • The high-energy bond found in ATP is important because it is an energy reserve for the body.
  • It takes so much energy to hold the phosphates to one another and to the ribose, and because energy is not destroyed, when it is broken off from the bond of the other phosphate, it releases the energy stored for use wherever the body needs it.
189
Q

Can you name the four components of the cell theory?

A

1- Cells are the building blocks of all plant and animal cells
2- Cells are the smallest functioning unit of life
3- Cells are produced through the division of pre-existing cells
4- Each cell maintains homeostasis

190
Q

Can you name and describe one function of the cell membrane?

A

One function of the cell membrane is to keep the Intracellular Fluid isolated from the Extracellular fluid, this is important to maintain homeostasis, as the ECF and ICF have different compositions and electrical balances.

191
Q

Why is it important that the phospholipid bilayer is comprised of a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail?

A
  • The water-loving heads of the phospholipid are happy being in contact with the water in the ECF & ICF, where as the water-fearing tails create a barrier that is resistant.
  • This aids in isolation of fluids and permits passage of select small molecules lipid soluble particles.
192
Q

What is the primary reason the intracellular fluid is extremely negative compared with the outside?

A

The primary reason for the relatively negative charge in the ICF is due to the presence of the Protein anion.

193
Q

ICF v ECF: where is K+ most highly concentrated? Na+? Cl-? Ca2+?

A
  • Potassium is highly concentrated inside the cell,
  • Sodium, Chloride, and Calcium have a higher concentration in the ECF
194
Q

What are the functions of the two types of endoplasmic reticulum? Of the golgi apparatus? Of the lysosome?

A
  • Endoplasmic Reticulum –
    • Smooth – Synthesis of lipids and carbohydrates
    • Rough – make proteins and ship them to the Golgi Apparatus
  • Golgi Apparatus – receives/processes/ships
    • receives proteins from Rough ER,
    • modifies them to meet need of cell;
    • ships via Lysosomes internally, Secretory Vesicles to the ECF, and Membrane Renewal Vesicles for repair of damaged cell wall and structures.
  • Lysosomes – are shipped by Golgi Apparatus, containing up to 40 different digestive enzymes which are toxic and must be contained. They temporary link up with other vesicles to break down “trash” and unused tissues.
195
Q

What is the difference between diffusion and osmosis?

A
  • Diffusion is the passive process of equalization, where particles move down their concentration gradient form an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
  • Osmosis is waters characteristic to travel from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration across a membrane.
196
Q

If you place a red blood cell in hypertonic saline, what will happen to that cell? Why is this significant in the human body?

A

If you place a red blood cell into a hypertonic solution water will push its way from the relatively hypotonic cell out into the solution, causing the cell to crenate.

This is important because providing the wrong type of solution could further the disease process.

197
Q

What are the two types of carrier-mediated transport?

A
  • Active transport – requires ATP, moves against the concentration gradient; Na-K Pump
  • Facilitated Diffusion – Passive, uses concentration gradient; like glucose and the revolving door
198
Q

What is the role of the Sodium Potassium Exchange Pump?

A

The Sodium Potassium pump’s role is to pump sodium ions out of the ICF against the concentration gradient, and facilitate the movement of Potassium from the ECF into the ICF to maintain the transmembrane potential of the cell.

199
Q

What is exocytosis?

A

Exocytosis is the active transport process of expelling contents or secretions of vesicle from cell into the ECF

200
Q

What is meant by transmembrane potential?

A

The transmembrane potential occurs where opposite charges are held apart by a cell membrane.

The sodium potassium pump, and the Protein anion enable the ICF to maintain a relatively negative charge when compared to the ECF.

201
Q

What is the role of RNA?

A

RNA – is used for transcription and creation of proteins from nucleus to ribosome.

202
Q

Can you list the steps involved in somatic cell division?

A
  • The cell life cycle consists of 3 stages: DNA Replication, Mitosis, and Cytokinesis
  • The main four phases of cell division during Mitosis are:
  1. Prophase: Chromatids are attached and present, spindles are beginning to form,
  2. Metaphase: Chromasomes are lined up on mid line,
  3. Anaphase: Chromasomes begin to seperate,
  4. Telophase: Cleavage furrow forms.
  5. Cytokinesis complete when cell separates into two individual cells
203
Q

What are the four different types of tissues in the human body?

A
  • Epithelial – Linings and Coverings
  • Connective – Fills internal spaces – most widely varied
  • Muscle – Specialized for contraction
  • Nervous - Communication
204
Q

Can you list three characteristics of epithelial tissue?

A
  • Due to the harsh conditions epithelial cells encounter they have stem cells so that they may be able to regenerate themselves.
  • They are avascular, meaning that they must receive their nutrients from either the basal membrane or via the exposed layer.
  • Epithelial cells are also polar, meaning they essentially have a top and a bottom, one surface is always bound to the basal lamina, and the other side is exposed.
205
Q

What is a gap junction?

A

A gap junction is a specialized intercellular connection that allows for the rapid passage of ions between cells.

206
Q

What is the difference between simple epithelium and stratified epithelium?

A

The only difference between simple and stratified cells is the number of layers that they possess.

  • Simple epithelium consists of a single layer,
  • Stratified consists of more than one layer of cells.
207
Q

To which category of connective tissue does bone belong? Blood? Adipose tissue?

A
  • Bone belongs to “supporting connective tissue”.
  • Blood belongs to “fluid connective tissue”.
  • Adipose belongs to “loose connective tissue proper”.
208
Q

What happens to adipose tissue when blood lipid levels are chronically elevated?

A
  • When lipid levels in the blood are chronically elevated, excess lipids are converted into more adipose tissue.
  • Adipose tissue however never goes away, the increased number of adipose cells will always remain,
  • where as muscle cells will be broken down after periods of disuse.
209
Q

What is the purpose of a serous membrane? What about a mucous membrane?

A
  • Serous membranes are a set of two linings:
    • the visceral lines the organ;
    • parietal lines the respective cavity.
  • Serous fluid fills the gap between linings to lubricate changing organ size and cushion organs from friction and trauma.
  • Mucous membranes are wet/mucous lined surfaces comprised of glands, and connective and epithelial tissues.
210
Q

What is the difference between striated and non-striated muscle tissue? Which types of muscle tissue are striated?

A
  • Muscles are striated due to linear arrangement of actin and myosin which act together to produce contraction,
  • non striated muscle simply lacks organization of actin and myosin fibers.
  • Skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle are striated,
  • muscle found in the stomach and bladder lack striation.
211
Q

What two types of cells comprise neural tissue?

A
  • Neurons- the nerve cells
  • neuroglia - supporting cells-
212
Q

What is tissue necrosis?

A

Tissue necrosis is cell death that take place within hours of injury.

Lysosomes begin to digest damaged cells and parts.

Lecture Notes - Instructor Adelson (8 decks)

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