Lymphatic System and Immunity/Integumentary System/Reproductive System Flashcards
Lymphatic Structures
- Lymphatic Vessels (Lymphatics) - Network of vessels that begin peripherally and collect in venous system vessels
- Lymp - Fluid similar to plasma that flows through lymphatic vessels
- Lymphocytes - specialized cells responsible for defending the body
- Lymphoid Tissues (nodes)
- Loose connective tissue
- groups of lymphocytes ⇒ nodules ie tonsils
- Lymphoid Organs - more complex structures that contain lymphocytes ie spleen, thymus, lymphnodes
Lymphatic Vessels (Lymphatics)
Network of vessels that begin peripherally and collect in venous system vessels
Lymph
Fluid similar to plasma that flows through lymphatic vessels
Lymphocytes
specialized cells responsible for defending the body
The three major types of lymphocyte are T cells, B cells and natural killer (NK) cells.
Lymphoid Tissues / Lymphoid Nodules
- Loose connective tissue
- Mass of lymphoid tissue not surrounded by a fibrous capsule (If had fibrous tissue surrounding = lymphoid organ)
- Increase/Decrease in size depending on # of lymphocytes present at any time
- Generally found beneath epithelial in parts of the body that have entry point from outside
- Respiratory Tract
- Urinary Tract
- Digestive Tract
- groups of lymphocytes ⇒ nodules ie tonsils, the appendix,
- If invasion is to great for tissue to manage, the body will destroy the tissue; inflammation will often lead to the removal via surgery
Lymphoid Organs
- more complex structures that contain lymphocytes ie spleen, thymus, lymphnodes
- Surrounded by fibrous connective tissue capsule
Functions of the Lymphatic System
- Production/Maintainence/Distribution of lymphocytes
- Return body fluids & solutes that have been collected in the lymphatic system from ECF/peripherial tissues to vascular system (blood)
- Distribution of nutrients, hormones, waste products to circulation
Pathogen
virus, bacteria, fungi, parasite
can be found in human body and are responsible for disease
Pathogen/Antigen/Allergen
Immunity
Body’s ability to resist or activate defenses to eliminate the pathogen
Lymphatic Vessels
Lymph vessels are a compliment to the cardiovascular system
At the begining of the Arteriole-Caplilary-Venulole Network
Begining of Capillary network
Hydrostatic pressure exceedes Osmotic pressure causing Loss of fluid out of the capillary into ECF
@ End of Capillary network
Osmotic pressure exceeds Hydrostatic pressure causing some fluid to be regained, but there is still a net loss into the Extracellular fluid.
Net loss contributes to the ECF, which inturn is sucked up into the lymphatic vessels.
Lymphatic vessels are one way transport, with ducts to prevent back flow.
Fluid is brought back centraly and dumped into subclavian veins which return fluid to SVC and systemic circulation.
*Single layer of simple squameous epithelium, important because it allows fluid to diffuse easily from the ECF into the Lymphatic Vessel
Lymphedema
A side effect of the removal of lymphnodes
Often seen with removal of axillary lympnodes in efforts to stop the metastasis of breast cancer.
Due to the loss of lymphnodes, edema presents in adjacent arm.
Thoracic Duct
&
Right Lymphatic Duct
-
Thoracic Duct -
- Patients Left side + R side below diphram
- Collects near Left subclavian
-
Right Lymphatic Duct -
- Right side above diphram
- Collects near Right subclavian
White Blood Cells
5 Types
- Lymphocytes
- Basophils
- Neutrophils
- Eosinophils
- monocytes
Lymphocytes
- Account for 25% of all WBC’s
- Three major types of lymphocytes are:
- T-Cells - Thymus Dependent Cells - account for 80% of all Lymphocytes
- B-Cells - Bone Marrow Derived Cells - account for 10-15% of all Lymphocytes
- NK Cells - Natural Killer Cells - account for 5-10% of lymphocytes
Thymus
- Located posterior to sternum in the media stinum
- Recieves Thymosin (hormone) which stimulates production and maturation of T Cells
- Has function is in pregnant females and children before they mature into adulthood; its function decreases with age.
- Functions: some endocrine; and production of Lymphocytes
T-Cells
Thymus Dependent Cells
account for 80% of all Lymphocytes
Three Types:
- Cytotoxic T-Cells - toxic to cytoplasm
- Responsible for Cell Mediated Imminity
- Attack foreign cells & cells affected by virus
- Regulatory T-Cells
- Helper T-Cells - stimulate T & B Cells
- Suppressor T-Cells - Inhibit T & B Cells
B-Cells
Bone Marrow Derived Cells
account for 10-15% of all Lymphocytes
- Differentiate into plasma cells which produce anti-bodies
- Responsible for Anti-Body Mediated Immunity
Antibody
- Soluble Protein also called Immunoglobin (Ig); its job is to bind to an antigen
Antigen
- is part of pathogen or foreign compound
Antibody and Antigens
Antibody
- Soluble Protein also called Immunoglobin (Ig); its job is to bind to an antigen
Antigen
- is part of pathogen or foreign compound
NK Cells
Natural Killer Cells
account for 5-10% of all lymphocytes
- NK cells attack
- foreign cells
- body cells infected with viruses
- normal body cells affected with cancer
- Responsible for Immunologic Survelliance
Lymphopoesis
is the synthesis and development of lymphocytes
Lymphoid Tissues / Lymphoid Nodules
- Loose connective tissue
- Mass of lymphoid tissue not surrounded by a fibrous capsule (If had fibrous tissue surrounding = lymphoid organ)
- Increase/Decrease in size depending on # of lymphocytes present at any time
- Generally found beneath epithelial in parts of the body that have entry point from outside
- Respiratory Tract
- Urinary Tract
- Digestive Tract
- groups of lymphocytes ⇒ nodules ie tonsils, the appendix,
- If invasion is to great for tissue to manage, the body will destroy the tissue; inflammation will often lead to the removal via surgery
Lymphoid Organs
- more complex structures that contain lymphocytes ie spleen, thymus, lymphnodes
- surrounded by fibrous connective tissue capsule
- Removal of Lymphoid organs is done conservatively due to the decreased ability of the body to fight infection without these organs
Lymphnodes
- Filters 99% of pathogens
- Activate B & T Cells
- Common place for cancer cells to accumulate, often used for testing to see if cancer is spreading.
- When cancer is identified in adjacent tissues, often adjacent lymphnodes will be removed as well which can cause lymphedema
Spleen
- Primary job is to filter blood and any abnormal bloodcells that pass
- Recieves a significant amount of blood, red in color due to storing Iron from recycled RBC’s
- Initiates B&T cell response
- Located on Left side of the stomach, usually hidden by stomach unless inflammed (spleenomegay - commonly a result of portal hypertension, or mono)
- Can cause rapid bleeding; treated conservatively when damaged or lacerated due to trauma due to its role in fighting infection.
Nonspecific Defenses
Vs
Specific Defenses
Nonspecific:
Deny Entry, Limit Spread of Pathogens in Body, is the same regardless of the type of pathogen
Specific:
Specific Resistance & Immunity
7 types of Nonspecific Defenses
and Primary Goals
Primary Goals:
Deny Entry
Limit Spread of Pathogens in Body
Same reaction Regardless of the type of pathogen
- Physical Barriers
- Phagocytes
- Immunological Surveillance
- Interferons
- Compliment System
- Fever
- Inflammation
Nonspecific - Physical Barriers
Two types:
-
External (Skin): Hair, Oils, Desmosomes
- Hair - prevents insects/material from sticking to surface
- Oil Secretions- coat surface to make slick and be able to be washed away
- Desmosomes - connected tightly, prevents pathogen from squeezing through
-
Internal: mucous, urine, digest
- Mucous: sweeps pathogens toward the pharanx
- Urine: flushes out of the body
- Stomach: Can digest Pathogens
Nonspecific -Phagocytes
-
First line of defense
- Remove cell debris & respond to the invasion of pathogens
- exist in many peripherial tissues
- Two types: Microphage/Macrophage
- Microphage - travel to peripherial tissues that are already dealing with infection/pathogens
-
Macrophage - derived from monocytes; can be fixed or be free to travel
- Fixed in Peripherial Tissues ie Kupfter Cells in Liver
-
Free
- Diapedesis - can squeeze through/between capillary walls
- Chemotaxis - attracted to chemicals in the ECF, draws macrophages towards them
Phagocytes - Microphages & Macrophages
- Microphage - travel to peripherial tissues that are already dealing with infection/pathogens
- Macrophage - derived from monocytes (one of the five types of WBC’s); can be fixed or be free to travel
- Monocytes & Macrophages together for Monocyte-Macrophage system
- Fixed in Peripherial Tissues ie Kupfter Cells in Liver
-
Free
- Diapedesis - can squeeze between cells in capillary walls
- Chemotaxis - attracted to chemicals in the ECF, draws macrophages towards them in presence of infection or pathogen
Nonspecific - Immunological Surveillance
NK Cells
- NK Cells Responsibility: Monitor for presence of antigens that are foreign to the body
** **Perforin - protein secreted into target cells membrane creating pores or tubules that causes the lysis of the target cell
Natural Killer Cells
Responsible for Immunologic Survelliance
account for 5-10% of all lymphocytes
- NK cells attack
- foreign cells
- body cells infected with viruses
- normal body cells affected with cancer
Nonspecific - Interferons
- small proteins released by activated lymphocytes & macrophages (due to prescence of virus, parasite, bacteria, tumor in cells)
- Named because of their capeability to interfere with viral replication in cell
- Work by second messenger to prevent replication of the virus
- they don’t destroy the virus or reverse other damages; they slow the rate of spread by the virus
- Cytokines - a class of chemical messengers that coordinate local activities; cell signaling proteins of which Interferons are a part of
Nonspecific - Compliment Cascade System
Activation occurs when a compliment protein (11 different types) attaches to an antibody (Ab)
- Causes a cascade of reactions that result in a hole in the cell membrane
- Arrival of other phagocytes and chemicals
- outcome of cascade formation of MAC (membrane attack complex)
- Holes in membrane causes cell rupture
*“complements” the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear pathogens from an organism
**Cascade of reactions similar to clotting cascade, chain reaction of events
Nonspecific: Fever
- Rise in body temperature > 1 degree above normal (range of temperatures normal to that indiviidual)
- Pyrogens: reset body thermostat (set point) in hypothalamus
- Increased mobility of leukocytes
- Enhanced leukocytes phagocytosis
- Endotoxin effects decreased
- Increased proliferation of T cells
Nonspecific : Inflammation
- Any localized tissue response to injury presents in swelling, pain, redness, warmth and the release of chemicals
- Goals of inflammation:
- deny entry and spread of pathogens present at injury site to any other part of the body
- repair damages to injured tissues
- MAST cells are responsible for releasing histamine and heparin
- clotting factors deal with the bleeding
- compliment proteins attempt to kill any pathogens that are in that particular area
- Dying cells cause formation of Pus
- if in an enclosed area - considered an abscess
- otherwise if is considered necrosis of those tissues
Specific Defense
Cellular & Humoral
Specific defense & Immunity
- T Cells - Protect against abnormal cells & Pathogens in LIVING CELLS (Cell mediated immunity)
- B Cells - Protect against antigens & pathogens in BODY FLUIDS (Humoral/Antibody Mediated Immunity)
Specific Defense Heirarchy
Immunity
- Inate -genetically determined
-
Acquired- produced by exposure, causes production of Ab
-
Active - Produced by Ab that develop in response to Antigens
- Naturally Acquired Active Immunity - antigen in environment; exposure leads to development of Ab
- Induced Active Immunity - through administration of vaccine
-
Passive - Antibodies transfered from another source
- Natural Passive Immunity - maternal transfer to fetus
- Induced Passive - meds given to fight infection
-
Active - Produced by Ab that develop in response to Antigens
Immunity
is either acquired or inate
- **Acquired ** -
- production of Ab produced by exposure;
- can be actively or passively acquired
- Inate - genetically determined
Acquired Immunity
Active vs Passive
Actively Aquired Immunity
Production by antibodies that develop in response to Antigens
Can be Naturally Aquired Active Immunity or Induced Active Immunity
Passively Aquired Immunity
Antibodies Transfered from another source (recieving a pass ie recieving Ab from mother or recieving meds to fight existing infection)
Active acquired immunity
Produced by Ab that develop in respose to exposure to antigens
- Naturally Acquired Active Immunity - exposure to antigen in environment leads to development of antibodies
- Induced Active Immunity - Ab produced in response to administration of vaccine (ie Flu Shot)
Passive Acquired Immunity
Antibodies Transfered from another source (recieving a pass ie recieving Ab from mother or recieving meds to fight existing infection)
- Natural Passive Immunity - Maternal transfer of immunity to fetus
- Induced Passive Immunity - Meds administered to fight existing infection
4 Properties Of Immunity
- Specificity
- Versitility
- Memory
- Tolerance
Immunity Specificity
Specific Defense is activated by a specific Antigen and the subsequent result affects only that Antigen
Specific Defense: Versitility
Production of many receptors to deal with many different antigens/pathogens
Specific Defense : Memory
Remain inactive
In event of second exposure they are ready to attack
After first exposure cells are duplicated; some attack inital exposure; remainder are held in reserve for second exposure to same pathogen
They retain a memory for what the pathogen looks like and are ready to attack it on second presentation
Specific Defense: Tolerance
Will not allow own body cells to be destroyed in an imune response
If T or B cells attack body cells they are destroyed
Immune response
Produced in response to Antigen Recognition of an Antigen, Pathogen, Virus, or allergen
Communication takes place between Cell Mediated Immunity (T Cells) & Antibody Mediated Immunity (B Cells)
- T Cells attack due to direct physical or chemical contact
- B Cells attack by circulating Antibodies
Antigen Recognition
is used to generate a specific defense when activated by a specific antigen. Antigen receptors sitting on surface of the B cell are activated only by antigen that matches that receptor.
MHC Class I
vs
MHC Class II
MHC Class I proteins
are found on all nucleated cells
Work by presenting fragments of proteins from within the cell (cytosol) on cell surface for recognition by T Cells
Cytotoxic T cells are only activated by MHC Class I proteins
MHC Class II proteins
are found only on Antigen Presenting Cells (APC) and lymphocytes
Helper T cells are activated by Class II MHC proteins to coordinate specific and non-specific defenses,
Helper T’s stimulate cell and antibody mediated immunity (communication component of Immune response).
T Cells
Usually recognize antigens when they bind to receptors on body cells
- Inactive T Cells recognize Class I and II MHC (Major Histocompatibility Complex Protein)
- can also bind antigens to itself
- is looking for one specific antigen if found it will divide and differentiate into:
- Cytotoxic T Cells
- Helper T Cells
- Memory T Cells
- Supressor T Cells
Cytotoxic T Cells
- Activated only by CLASS I MHC - AKA Killer T’s or Cytotoxic T’s
- Responsible for Cell mediated immunity
- secretion of Lymphotoxins which disrupts metabolism of the cell
- secretion of Cytokines (interfere with genes) Affecting genes and causing Apoptosis (Programmed cell death)
- release of perforin - causes rupture of target cell membrane
**All three help to destoy target cell
Helper T’s
- Activated by Class II MHC*
- coordinates specific and nonspecific defenses
- Stimulates cell mediated immunity & antibody mediated immunity
Memory T Cells
- Remain in reserve for second exposure to pathogen
- can only be activated by second exposure or later
- differentiate into cytotoxic T’s and Helper T cells.
- Memory T’s help to create a rapid response in event of second exposure, increasing the effectiveness of the immune response.
- Rapid response increases effectiveness of immune response
B Cells
Launch Chemical attack by producing antibodies
- antigen binds to B cell where it is engulfed and presented on surface
- sensitizing B cell
- Circulating Helper T’s recognize presence of antigen and secrete cytokines which
- Causes B Cell activation and differentiation.
B’s differentiate into
- Active B cells for circulation against current pathogen; Active B’s turn into plasma cells which are responsible for the production of antibodies.
- memory B’s for use against future invasions by same antigen.
Epidermis Strata
5 Strata Layers & Basic Function
- Stratum Corneum - 15-30 Layers of Dead epithelium; most of barrier functions are provided by this layer
- Stratum Lucidum - Clear/Translucent layer only found in Soles and Palms; contains lots of keratin
- Stratum Granulosum - Synthesis of Keratin; cells lose their nucleus and cytoplasm looks grainy
- Stratum Spinosum - Continues process of mitosis and daughter cell creation
- Stratum Germinativum - Attached to basment layer; Contains Melancytes which are responsible for skin color
Hair
Non-Living Structure
Present on surfaces of most of the skin
Produced in an organ called the hair follicle
Hair is divided into 3 Sections:
- Hair Papilla - type of connective tissue located at very bottom; connected to a capillary and a nerve
- Hair Root - prekaratinization; up to about 1/3 of the way up
-
Hair Shaft - remainder of hair; post-karatinization; comprised of 3 layers
- Medulla - Located in center of shaft, comprised of Soft Keratin
- Cortex - Middle layer; comprised of Hard Keratin
- Cuticle - Outermost layer; comprised of hard Keratin
- Cells reproduce like the skin; ie pushing up daughter cells to next layer
*Arrector Pilli Muscle - ennervated by sympathetic nervous system; contraction when cold will make hair stand on end
Hair Fun Facts
- Hair grows for 2-5 years; then it takes a break, falls out, and starts back up again
- Male Pattern Baldness in an X-Linked Trait; more common in males than females; ressesive, for female to have it, both mom and dad have to contribute that trait to child
- Pigment for hair is melanin (just like skin); abscence of melanin = gray hair; melanin production decreases with age
- Eyelashes and nose hair - guard pathogens from entering body
- Cushions a blow to the head
- Provides some protection from UV Light
- Insulates the skull
Mitosis (Males)
Spermatogonia (Stem Cells) - undifferentiated cells that divide by Mitosis to form into primary spermatocyte (still diploid at this point)
- divide by mitosis for entire adult life (post puberty); different than female where Mitosis - oogonia (female stem cells divide before birth and produce cells called primary oocyte)
- Goal: to make 2 duplicate daughter cells from existing parent cells = 4 diploid cells
- one stays & one daughter cell moves toward lumen (centrally) and becomes Primary Spermatocyte moves to Meiosis One
Meosis I
Primary Spermatocyte (diploid cell formed in Mitosis)
Tetrad Formation takes place
Where crossover occurs and recombination of genes recieved from parents
Primary Spermatocyte then divides into two cells each with two chromatids (chromatid = one half of a chromosome) forming secondary spermatocytes
Meosis II
2 Secondary Spermatocytes (daughter cells) formed in Meiosis I divide to produce 4 Haploid Spermatids
Each spermatid has half the genetic material originally present in the primary spermatocyte
Spermatid - haploid male gamate
Spermiogenesis final stage of spermatogenesis which sees the maturation of spermatid into Spermatozoa (Sperm)
**Spermatogenesis is the entire process, not to be confused with Spermiogenesis which is the maturation of spermatid into sperm**
Sperm cell (Spermatozoa)
Head - houses nucleus and acrosomal cap
Acrosomal Cap - contains enzymes necessary for fertilization
Nucleus - houses product of Spermatogenesis
Neck - where head meets middle piece
Middle Piece - houses Mitochondrial Spiral
Mitochondrial Spiral - important becauses it provides ATP for locomotion
Flagellum - whip like tail necessary for locomotion
Sperm joins Seminal Fluid
- Seminal Vessicles - 60% of semen -
- fructose for energy;
- prostaglandins for SMC contractions
- fibrinogen for forming clot in vagina
- Prostate gland - 20-30% of semen
- seminal plasma important for preventing UTI’s
- Bolbourethreal gland
- sticky mucous that is used to neutralize urinary acids
The Penis - Structures
Root - Attachment of penis to body
Shaft - contains erectile tissue
Glands - distal portion surrounds the External urethreal meatus
Dorsal Vein
Corpora Cavernosa
External Urethreal Meatus
Corpus Spongiosum
Meosis II
- Secondary oocyte is released during ovulation
- ONLY completed IF fertilization takes place, then would be called an OVUM
Follicle Development
Ovarian Follicle
- Speciallized structure within ovary that houses the development of what will be the primary oocyte growth & Meosis I
- Primordial follicle
- Primary follicle
- Secondary follicle
- Tertiary follicle
- Folllicle ruptures - releases egg into interstitial space
The cycle of the ovary and ovulation
{bracketed items are Adelson’s points}
The cycle of the ovary lasts around 28 days. It consists of two stages or phases:
- The follicular phase, the first half of the cycle, some of the eggs within the ovary complete their development. The maturation of the oocytes is under the control of the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which promotes the development of a follicle, which secretes estrogen. {Formation of tertiary follicle, and allows for formation of secondary oocyte}
- The high level of estrogen in the blood causes the LH production by the anterior pituitary and ovulation (or release of the ovum into the Fallopian tube so it can be fertilized) at about the fourteenth day of a 28-day cycle.{secondary oocyte ruptures from ovary and is released into the pelvic cavity ⇒ swept into the uterine/fallopian tube}
- After ovulation and during the second half, or luteal phase, days 14-28, the cells that surrounded the ovum are transformed into a mass of yellow cells (the corpus luteum), which secretes progesterone. If fertilization does not take place, this mass of cells degenerates, menstruation occurs, and a new cycle begins.
*GnRH is a hypotalamic-releasing hormone that stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete FSH and LH, which act on the ovaries.
**FSH promotes the development of the follicle that later, under the influence of LH, becomes the corpus luteum.
***Negative feedback controls the level of all hormones involved
The cycle of the uterus and menstruation
The cycle of the uterus lasts an average of 28 days and it is the transformation of the internal wall of this organ, called the endometrium, along with the process of maturation of the ovule. Is consists of three phases:
- Menses - days 1-7, there is a low level of female hormones in the body: the endometrium, which is very thick and vascularised (i.e. has a large number of capillaries), desintegrates, detaches and is expelled through the vagina together with the blood in its capillaries. These hemorrahages are known as menstruation. {degredation of functional zone, sloughing off of tissue; loss of 35-50ml of blood each time}
- Proliferative Phase - days 7-14, the endometrium lost in menstruation regenerates itself. Increased production of estrogen by an ovarian follicle causes the endometrium to thicken and to become vascular and glandular. {surviving epithelial cells, multiply and spread across surface of endometrium, couple mm of tissue}
**Ovulation usually occurs on the fourteenth day of the 28-day cycle.
- Secrectory Phase - days 15-28, increased production of progesterone by the corpus luteum causes the endometrium to double en thickness and the uterine glands to mature. The endometrium becomes thicker and vascularises, so that, if the ovum is fertilised, the embryo can develop. If fertilization does not take place, the corpus luteum degenerates and the low level of the sex hormones in the female body causes the uterine lining to break down (i.e. the endometrium is expelled through menstruation). After, a new cycle begins. {glands enlarge; preparation for arival of embryo; persists as long as there is a corpus luteum}
*A about age 40-50, the ovaries gradually cease to respond to the anterior pituitary hormones. Eventually, no more follicles are produced. Following this occurrence, called menopause, menstruation ceases entirely.
Uterus Anatomy
Fundus - Top of Uterus; is massaged post partum to initiate cessation of bleeding
Three Layers
- Perimetrium (viseral lining) - outside
- Myometrium - muscular layer
- endometrium - innermost; divides into 3 additional layers: Functional zone (at top) only portion of lining that degrades during menstration, baslar zone (middle), myometrium (baselayer)
Cervix - lower narrow portion of the uterus; means neck of the womb
