Quiz 2 Flashcards
Premises
Statement in an argument offered as evidence or reasons why we should accept the conclusion.
Conclusion
The statement in an argument that the premises are intended to prove or support.
Statement
a sentence that can be viewed as true or false. ( Red is a color)
Rhetorical question
Has grammatical form of a question, but is meant to be understood as a statement.
Ought imperative
a sentence that has the form of a command(imperative) but is intended to assert a value ought judgement about what is good or bad.
Ought imperative (example)
Do not read beauty magazines. They will only make you feel ugly.
Indicator words
provide clues that premises or conclusions are being put forward.
Premise indicators
Indicated that premises are being offered.
Conclusion indicators
indicate that conclusions are being offered.
Purpose of a Report
Convey information about a subject.
Unsupported assertions
statements about what a speaker or writer happens to believe. (can be true or false/ Rational or irrational)
Conditional statement
“If- Then statement” ( If it rains, then the picnic will be cancelled)
Antecedent
The first part of a Conditional statement (If) [IF IT RAINS, then the picnic will be cancelled]
Consequent
The second part of a Conditional statement (then) [ If it rains, THEN THE PICNIC WILL BE CANCELLED]
Illustrations
Intended to provide examples of a claim, rather than prove or support the claim. ( Many wild flowers are edible, For example daisies and day lilies are delicious in salads. )
Chain arguments
Arguments where the Antecedent ( IF) of the first statement is linked to the consequent( THEN) of the last statement by a chain of intervening statements.
Explanation
show WHY something is the case, not try to prove THAT it is the case. (Titanic sank because it struck an iceberg).
Explanandum
The statement that is explained.
Explanans
The statement that does the explaining.
Tu quoque (“you’re another”)
Does not respond to objection; claims you can’t object because you’re a hypocrite. ( two wrongs don’t make a right)
Begging the Question
Commit a mistake in reasoning by assuming what one seeks to prove. ( circular reasoning) [sunbathing is murder, and murder is illegal, so sunbathing should be illegal]
Circular Reasoning
The premise that supports the conclusion is in turn SUPPORTED BY THE CONCLUSION. ( Capital punishment is murder, murder is illegal, so Capital Punishment should be illegal.) [Begging the Question]
Are all sentences statements?
No. Questions, Commands, and Exclamations are NOT statements.
Simple or Compound statement: Roses are red
Simple Statement
Simple or Compound statement: Roses are red and violets are blue
Compound Statement
Examples of words introducing premises
Since, For, Because, Given that
Examples of words introducing conclusion
Therefore, thus, hence, so, it follows that, accordingly
Content
Refers to the TRUTH or FALSITY of the sentences of the argument.
FORM
Refers to whether the arguments CONCLUSION FOLLOWS FROM THE PREMISES of the argument. We show the form of an argument by symbolizing it.
Valid Argument
If the premises are TRUE, the CONCLUSION MUST BE TRUE.
MODUS PONENS ( Valid )
If A then B
A
Therefore B
Affirming the Consequent (Invalid)
If I didnt study for this test I will fail.
I didnt study
Therefore, I will fail
(If P then Q, Q, Therefore P)
Is Validity of an argument based on form or content?
FORM. If A, then B, A, Therefore B always VALID.
2 reasons a conclusion can be false
1) It is an argument that has TRUE premises but is INVALID
2) It is a valid argument but has at least ONE FALSE PREMISE.
Deductive Arguments
The conclusions are necessarily true if the arguments are valid and the premises true.
Modus Tollens (Valid Deductive Argument)
Also known as denying the consequent.
A then B
-B
Therefore -A
Disjunctive Syllogism (Valid Deductive Argument)
A v B
-A
Therefore , B
Inductive Arguments
Not meant to guarantee Validity, but argues PROBABILITY.
Example of weak inductive argument
Known amount Vs how many total in the world (probability)
Example of STRONG inductive argument
- Recent studies
- Agree with previous studies
Empirical Generalization (Inductive Reasoning)
A general statement is made about an entire group based on observing some members of a group
Three keys for evaluating Inductive Arguments
- Known
- Sufficient
- Representative
Casual Reasoning (Inductive reasoning)
Scientific method.
Fallacy
an error in reasoning
Ad Hominem Fallacy
A conclusion accepted or rejected because of the person involved. ( Name Calling, Guilt by association)
Slippery Slope Argument
Extending an example indefinitely to show that an undesirable result will occur.
Example of: Allowing gays in the military will lead to the legalization of gay marriage.
Slippery Slope Fallacy
Hasty Generalizations
Reaching a conclusion based on a sample that is biased or too small.
Example of: He’s from Ireland, he must be Catholic
Hasty Generalization
Arguments from False Authority
Accepting a conclusion based on the judgement of someone who IS NOT A RELIABLE AUTHORITY ON THAT ISSUE.
Example of : Albert Einstein believed in ghosts so ghosts must actually exist
Arguments from False Authority
Appeals to Pity or Popularity
Attempts to argue on the basis of irrelevant information by invoking emotion or common beliefs which may or maynot be true.
Example of: I need an A in this course, because if I dont get it , I’ll lose my scholarship.
Appeals to Pity
Example of : That book must be good, its been on the best seller list for weeks.
Appeals to Popularity.
Loaded Question Fallacy
Separate questions or choices are combined unfairly.
example of: I asked the defendant if he has stopped beating his wife and he refused to answer so he must continue to beat her.
Loaded Question Fallacy
Straw Man Fallacy
Attacking a distortion of an opponent’s actual position
Example of: The senator wants to cut defense spending, so he must not care if we can’t protect ourselves
Straw Man Fallacy
False Cause (Post Hoc)
Claiming one thing is caused by another because it follows right afterwards.
Example of: Every time I drink alcohol at that restaurant, I sneeze. There must be something wrong with their drinks
False Cause (Post Hoc)
The Red Herring
Introducing an irrelevant issue into the discussion to distract attention from the real issue.
Example of: Officer, you shouldn’t give me a ticket because there are people out there committing much more dangerous actions.
The Red Herring Fallacy ( Distraction)
False Dichotomy ( False Dilemma)
Presents only two choices when there may be many more.
Example of : America, love it or leave it!
False Dichotomy
