Quicksheets Biology Flashcards
1
Q
contains all the genetic material necessary for replication of the cell
A
nucleus
2
Q
location of metabolic processes and ATP production
A
mitochondria
- pyruvate dehydrogenase
- TCA
- ETC
- oxidative phosphorylation
- β-oxidation
- some of gluconeogenesis
- urea cycle
3
Q
structures containing hydrolytic enzymes capable of breaking down different substances
A
lysosomes
4
Q
interconnected membraneous structure; site of synthesis of proteins destined for insertion into a membrane or secretion
A
Rough ER
5
Q
Interconnected membranous structure where lipid synthesis and detoxification occurs
A
smooth ER
6
Q
Membrane-bound sacs where posttranslational modification of proteins occur
A
Golgi apparatus
7
Q
organelles that contain hydrogen peroxide and are the site of β-οxidation of very long-chain fatty acids
A
peroxisomes
8
Q
Fluid mosaic model
A
phospholipid bilayer; cholesterol + embedded proteins
exterior: hydrophilic phosphate heads
interior: hydrophobic fatty acids
9
Q
cell theory
A
- all living things composed of cells
- cell is the basic functional unit of life
- cells only arise from preexisting cells
- cells carry genetic info in the form of DNA
10
Q
which cells have a nucleus? eukaryotes or prokaryotes
A
eukaryotes have a nucleus
11
Q
cocci
A
spherical bacteria
12
Q
bacilli
A
rod-shaped bacteria
13
Q
spirilli
A
spiral-shaped bacteria
14
Q
gram-positive bacteria
A
large quantities of peptidoglycan in the cell wall
15
Q
gram-negative bacteria
A
small quantities of peptidoglycan with lipopolysaccharides
16
Q
how does flagella differ in bacteria and eukaryotes?
A
eukaryotic flagella have a basal body which serves as the engine for motion
17
Q
all prokaryotes divide by…
A
binary fission
18
Q
describe how binary fission occurs
A
the circular chromosome replicates and attaches to the cell wall; the plasma membrane and cell wall grow along the midline, forming daughter cells
19
Q
Explain the stages of cell division
A
G1: cell increases organelles and cytoplasm S: DNA replication G2: same as G1 M: cell divides in 2 Mitoses = PMAT Meiosis = PMAT x 2
20
Q
in sexual reproduction, crossing over leads to … occurs in…
A
Crossing over leads to genetic recombination
in prophase I.
21
Q
In meiosis I, homologous chromosomes separate during
A
metaphase I
22
Q
meiosis II occurs in
A
Meiosis occurs in spermatogenesis (sperm
formation) and oogenesis
(egg formation).
23
Q
stages of early development
A
- Cleavage = mitotic divisions
- Implantation = embryo implants during blastula stage
- Gastrulation: ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm form
- Neurulation: germ layers develop a nervous system
24
Q
what forms out of the ectoderm?
A
Nervous system, epidermis, lens
of eye, inner ear
25
what forms out of the Endoderm?
Lining of digestive tract, lungs,
| liver and pancreas
26
what forms out of the Mesoderm?
Muscles, skeleton, circulatory
| system, gonads, kidney
27
Liver's role in homeostasis (7)
1. Gluconeogenesis
2. Processing of nitrogenous wastes (urea)
3. Detoxification of wastes/chemicals/drugs
4. Storage of iron and vitamin A
5. Synthesis of bile and blood proteins
6. β-Oxidation of fatty acids to ketones
7. Interconversion of carbohydrates, fats, and amino
acids
28
Layers of the skin (5)
* Stratum corneum
* Stratum lucidum
* Stratum granulosum
* Stratum spinosum
* Stratum basalis
29
osmoregulation- filtration:
- occurs at
- what happens
- Passive and/or active?
Filtration
- glomerulus
- filtrate passes through
- passive
30
osmoregulation- secretion:
- occurs at
- what happens
- Passive and/or active?
Secretion
- acids, bases, ions--interstitial fluid -> filtrate
- maintains pH, [K+], and waste
- BOTH passive and active
31
osmoregulation- reabsorption:
- occurs at
- what happens
- Passive and/or active?
Reabsorption
- filtrate -> blood
enabled by osmolarity gradient and selective permeability of the walls
- Passive AND active
32
Aldosterone
- effect on Na+, K+ H+, and H2O
- secreted by
- is regulated by
Aldosterone:
- stimulates Na+ reabsorption, K+ and H+ secretion, increases water reabsorption, blood volume, and blood pressure
- secreted by adrenal cortex
- regulated by the renin- angiotensin-aldosterone system
33
ADH (Vasopressin)
- function
- affect on H2O
- secreted from where and in response to what?
Increases collecting duct’s permeability to water to
increase water reabsorption
• Is secreted from posterior pituitary with high
[solute] in the blood
34
functional unit of the kidney
nephron
35
tropic hormones
stimulate other glands
36
Mechanisms of hormone action: peptides act via...
second messengers
37
Mechanisms of hormone action: steroids act via...
act via hormone/receptor
| binding to DNA
38
FSH
source:
action:
Follicle-stimulating hormone
source: anterior pituitary
action: follicle maturation; spermatogenesis
39
LH
source:
action:
Luteinizing hormone
source: anterior pituitary
action: ovulation; testosterone synthesis
40
ACTH
source:
action:
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
source: anterior pituitary
action: stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete glucocorticoids
41
TSH
source:
action:
Thyroid-stimulating hormone
source: anterior pituitary
action: stimulates thyroid to produce thyroid hormone
42
Prolactin
source:
action:
Prolactin
source: anterior pituitary
action: stimulates milk production and secretion
43
Endorphins
source:
action:
Endorphins
source: anterior pituitary
action: inhibits the perception of pain in the brain
44
Growth hormone
source:
action:
Growth hormone
source: anterior pituitary
action: stimulates bone and muscle growth/lipolysis
45
Anterior pituitary hormones
```
FLAT PEG
FSH
LH
ACTH
TSH
Prolactin
Endrophins
Growth hormone
```
46
Oxytocin
source:
stored in:
action:
Oxytocin
source: hypothalamus
stored in: pituitary
action: uterine contractions in labor; milk secretion in lactation
47
ADH/vasopressin
source:
stored in:
action:
ADH/vasopressin
source: hypothalamus
stored in: pituitary
Action: water reabsorption in kidneys
48
Thyroid hormones T3, T4 function
metabolic activity
49
Calcitonin
source:
action:
source: thyroid
action: decreases (tones down) blood calcium level
50
Parathyroid hormone
increases blood calcium level
51
Glucocorticoids
source:
action:
source: adrenal cortex
action: increases blood glucose level and decreases protein synthesis; anti-inflammatory
52
Mineralcorticoids
source:
action:
source: adrenal cortex
action: increases sodium and water reabsorption in kidney
53
Epinephrine/norepinephrine
source:
action:
source: adrenal medulla
action: increases blood glucose level and heart rate
54
Glucagon
source:
action:
source: pancreas
action: stimulates conversion glycogen to glucose in liver; increases blood glucose
55
Insulin
source:
action:
source: pancreas
action: lowers blood glucose; increases glycogen stores
56
hypothalamus hormones
oxytocin, ADH
57
adrenal cortex hormones
glucocorticoids, mineralcorticoids
58
pancreas hormones
glucagon, insulin, somatostatin
59
somatostatin
source:
action:
source: pancrease
action: supresses secretion of glucagon and insulin
60
testosterone
source:
action:
source: testes
action: maintains male secondary sex charcteristics
61
Estrogen
source:
action:
source: ovary/placenta
action: maintains female secondary sex characteristics
62
Progesterone
source:
action:
source: ovary/placenta
action: promotes growth/maintenance of endometrium
63
Melatonin
source:
action:
source : pineal gland
| action: sleep-wake cycle regulation
64
atrial natriuretic peptide
source:
action:
source: heart
action: involved in osmoregulation and vasodilation
65
Thymosin
source:
action:
source: thymus
action: stimulates T-cell development
66
Stages of the menstrual cycle: name and what happens
1. Follicular: FSH causes growth of a follicle
2. Ovulation: LH causes follicle to release egg
3. Luteal: corpus lute forms
4. Mensturation: endometrial lining sheds
67
Menstruation stage where estrogen is the highest?
ovulation stage
68
Menstruation stage where progesterone is highest
luteal stage
69
Menstruation stage where there is a peak in LH
ovulation
70
Menstruation stage where there is a peak in FSH
ovulation
71
describe the resting potential of cells
3 Na+ pumped out for every 2K+ pumped in
72
describe an action potential
stimulus acts on a neuron, depolarizing the membrane of the cell body
73
describe impulse propagation
depolarization (Na+ rushing into axon) followed by depolarization (K+ rushing out of axon) along the nerve axon
74
Describe the synapse
* Synaptic knob--voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open, sending Ca2+ into the cell
* Vesicles fuse w/ presynaptic membrane sending the NT across the synaptic clef
* NT binds to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, triggering depolarization
75
4 stages of an action potential
I: rest- all gates closed
II: depolarization- Na+ gates open
III: repolarization: Na+ gates inactivate K+ gates open
IV: hyper polarization- all gates close
76
membrane potential of an action potential
+35 mV
77
membrane potential of hyperpolarization
-90 mV
78
membrane potential of resting potential
-70 mV
79
membrane potential of threshold
-50 mV
80
peripheral includes
sensory and motor
81
motor includes
somatic and autonomic
82
autonomic includes
parasympathetic and sympathetic
83
sarcomere
contractile unit of the fibers in skeletal muscle; contains Thin actin and thick myosin filaments
84
how muscles work- contraction: initiation
neuron depolarization leads to an action potential
85
Sarcomere shortening
Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+
Ca2+ binds to troponin on the actin filament
Myosin binds, ATPase allows myosin to pull thin filaments toward the center of the H zone and the ATP causes dissociaiton
86
How muscles work- relaxation
Ca2+ is pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum
87
describe bone reformation
inorganic ions are absorbed from the blood for use in bone
88
describe bone degradation (resorption)
inorganic ions are released into the blood
89
Circulatory pathway through heart
Superior and inferior vena cava → right atrium →
right ventricle → pulmonary arteries → lungs→
pulmonary veins → left atrium → left ventricle →
aorta → body
90
three portal systems in the heart
Liver (hepatic), kidney, and brain
| hypophyseal
91
Fetal circulation: foramen ovale
connects right and left atria
92
Fetal circulation: ductus arteriosus
connects pulmonary artery
to aorta. Along with foramen ovale, shunts
blood away from lungs
93
Fetal circulation: ductus venosus
connects umbilical vein
to inferior vena cava, connecting umbilical
circulation to central circulation
94
blood components: plasma
aqueous mixture of nutrients, wastes,
| hormones, blood proteins, gases, and salts
95
blood components: erythrocytes
carry oxygen
96
Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve--
| factors leading to right shift of curve: (4)
* increase temp, PCO2
* decrease pH
* bohr effect
97
hemoglobin
4 subunits carry O2 and Co2; iron controls binding and releasing
98
oxyhemoglobin equation
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-
99
platelets release ___ which does_____
platelets release thromboplastin which (along with cofactors calcium and vitamin K) converts active prothrombin to active thrombin
100
function of thrombin
converts fibrinogen into fibrin which surrounds blood cells to form the clot
101
```
If you have Blood Type A:
RBC antigen:
Antibodies:
Donates to:
Receives from:
```
```
Type A:
RBC antigen: A
Antibodies: anti-B
Donates to: A, AB
Receives from: A, O
```
102
```
If you have Blood Type B:
RBC antigen:
Antibodies:
Donates to:
Receives from:
```
```
Type B: B
RBC antigen: anti-A
Antibodies:
Donates to:
Receives from:
```
103
```
If you have Blood Type AB:
RBC antigen:
Antibodies:
Donates to:
Receives from:
```
```
Type AB:
RBC antigen:
Antibodies:
Donates to:
Receives from:
```
104
```
If you have Blood Type O:
RBC antigen:
Antibodies:
Donates to:
Receives from:
```
```
Type O:
RBC antigen:
Antibodies:
Donates to:
Receives from:
```
105
Blood cells with RH factor =
RH+
| these individuals produce no anti-Rh antibody
106
Rh- blood cells
lack RH factor and these individuals produce an antibody if exposed
107
Gas exchange occurs at
the alveoli
108
Describe the gas exchange process in terms of deoxygenated blood, O2, and CO2-
deoxygenated blood enters the pulmonary capillaries that surround the alveoli Oxygen diffuses down its gradient into the capillaries where it binds with hemoglobin and returns to the heart. CO2 form the tissues diffuses from the capillaries to the alveoli and is exhaled.
109
which has a higher affinity for oxygen, fetal or adult hemoglobin
fetal hemoglobin
110
pancreatic amylase
production site:
Function site:
Hydrolysis rxn:
pancreatic amylase
production site: pancreas
Function site: small intestine
Hydrolysis rxn: starch -> maltose
111
Salivary amylase (ptyalin)
production site:
Function site:
Hydrolysis rxn:
Salivary amylase (ptyalin)
production site: salivary glands
Function site: mouth
Hydrolysis rxn: starch -> maltose
112
Maltase
production site:
Function site:
Hydrolysis rxn:
Maltase
production site: intestinal glands
Function site: small intestine
Hydrolysis rxn:maltose -> 2 glucoses
113
Sucrase
production site:
Function site:
Hydrolysis rxn:
Sucrase
production site: intestinal glands
Function site: small intestine
Hydrolysis rxn: sucrose -> glucose, fructose
114
Lactase
production site:
Function site:
Hydrolysis rxn:
Lactase
production site: intestinal glands
Function site: small intestine
Hydrolysis rxn: lactose -> glucose, galactose
115
Pepsin
Production site:
Function site:
Function:
Pepsin
Production site: gastric glands (chief cells)
Function site: stomach
Function: hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
116
Trypsin
Production site:
Function site:
Function:
Trypsin
Production site: pancreas
Function site: small intestine
Function: hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds and converts chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin
117
Chymotrypsin
Production site:
Function site:
Function:
Chymotrypsin
Production site: pancreas
Function site: small intestine
Function: hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
118
Carboxypeptidases A and B
Production site:
Function site:
Function:
Carboxypeptidases A and B
Production site: pancreas
Function site: small intestine
Function: hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at C-terminus
119
Aminopeptidase
Production site:
Function site:
Function:
Aminopeptidase
Production site: intestinal glands
Function site: small intestine
Function: hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at N-terminus
120
Dipeptidases
Production site:
Function site:
Function:
Dipeptidases
Production site: intestinal glands
Function site: small intestine
Function: hydrolyzes part of amino acids
121
Enteropeptidase
Production site:
Function site:
Function:
Enteropeptidase
Production site: intestinal glands
Function site: small intestine
Function: converts trypsinogen and procarboxypeptidases to active form
122
Which enzymes are produced in the pancreas? (3)
trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidases A and B
123
Which enzymes are produced in the intestinal glands? (3)
Aminopeptidase, dipeptidase, enteropeptidase
124
where does the majority of digestion take place?
small intestine
125
Lipid digestion--when chime is present, the duodenum secretes ____ which does ____.
Lipid digestion--when chime is present, the duodenum secretes CCK into the blood which stimulates the secretion of pancreatic enzymes and bile, and promotes satiety
126
Bile is made in the ____ and works on ___
Bile = liver = emulsifies fats
127
lipase is an enzyme that is made in the ____ and works on ____
lipase = pancreas = hydrolyzes lipids
128
law of segregation
homologous alleles (chromosomes) separate so that each gamete has one copy of each gene
129
If both parents are Rr, the alleles separate to give a genotypic ratio of ____and a phenotypic ratio of____
genotypic ratio = 1:2:1
| phenotypic ratio = 3:1
130
Law of independent assortment
alleles of unlinked genes assort independently in meiosis
131
In the law of independent assortment, for two traits, AaBb parents will produce ____ gametes and the phenotypic ratio is ____
AaBb = AB, Ab, aB, ab gametes
| 9:3:3:1
132
What is the effect of crossing over during meiosis I
it can unlink genes (prophase I)
133
Genes are most likely unlinked when (far apart/ close together)
unlinked genes are most likely far apart
134
describe the pattern of inheritance in autosomal recessive
autosomal recessive may skip generations
135
describe the pattern of inheritance in autosomal dominant
autosomal dominant appears in every generation
136
describe the pattern of inheritance in X-linked
X linked = no male-to-male transmission; more males are affected
137
The probability of producing a genotype that requires multiple events to occur equals the ...
The probability of producing a genotype that requires multiple events to occur equals the product of the probability of each event
138
The probability of producing a genotype that requires multiple different events equals the...
The probability of producing a genotype that requires multiple different events equals the sum of each probability minus the probability of multiple events occurring
139
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium assumptions (5)
```
no mutations
large population
random mating
no migration
equal reproductive success
```
140
hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equations
p+q = 1
p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
```
p = dominant allele
q = recessive allele
p^2 = dominant homozygotes
2pq = heterozygotes
q^2 = recessive homozygotes
```
141
the basic unit of a nucleic acid is a ___ which is made up of...
basic unit of nucleic acid = nucleotide
| made up of sugar, nitrogenous base, phosphate
142
purines include
adenine and guanine (double ringed)
143
pyrimidines include
cytosine, uracil, thymine (single-ringed)
144
these genes have DNA that codes for proteins
structural genes
145
these genes are the repressor binding site
operator genes
146
transcriptional regulation in prokaryotes is regulated by the ...
operon
147
RNA polymerase's 1st binding site is the ___ gene
promoter gene
148
these systems need an inducer for transcription to occur
inducible systems
149
these systems need a correpressor to inhibit transcription
repressible systems
150
point mutations
one nucleotide is substituted by another; they are silent if the sequence of the aa doesn't change
151
frameshift mutations
insertions or deletions shift reading frame; protein doesn't form or is nonfunctional
152
describe a virus
accelular structures of double-or single-stranded DNA or RNA in a protein coat
153
in the lytic cycle of viruses
virus kills the host cell
154
in the lysogenic cycle of a virus
virus enters host genome
155
plasmids
extragenomic material
156
episomes
plasmids integrated into the genome
157
transformation
bacteria gets gene material from environment and integrates it into the host cell genome
158
the most common method of bacterial genetics whereby antibiotic resistance can be acquired
transformation
159
conjugation
bacterial form of mating (sexual reproduction); sex pillus formed for transfer of genetic material from donor male (+) to recipient female (-)
160
In order to form the pilus, bacteria must have certain plasmids known as
sex factors
161
transduction
bacteriophage acquires genetic info from host cell
Sometimes when the new virions are assembled in a host cell, some of the genetic material from the host cell is packaged along w/ the viral genetic material. Then, the bacteriophage infects another bacterium, resulting in transfer of bacterial genetic material
