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Quicksheets Biology Flashcards

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1
Q

contains all the genetic material necessary for replication of the cell

A

nucleus

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2
Q

location of metabolic processes and ATP production

A

mitochondria

  • pyruvate dehydrogenase
  • TCA
  • ETC
  • oxidative phosphorylation
  • β-oxidation
  • some of gluconeogenesis
  • urea cycle
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3
Q

structures containing hydrolytic enzymes capable of breaking down different substances

A

lysosomes

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4
Q

interconnected membraneous structure; site of synthesis of proteins destined for insertion into a membrane or secretion

A

Rough ER

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5
Q

Interconnected membranous structure where lipid synthesis and detoxification occurs

A

smooth ER

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6
Q

Membrane-bound sacs where posttranslational modification of proteins occur

A

Golgi apparatus

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7
Q

organelles that contain hydrogen peroxide and are the site of β-οxidation of very long-chain fatty acids

A

peroxisomes

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8
Q

Fluid mosaic model

A

phospholipid bilayer; cholesterol + embedded proteins

exterior: hydrophilic phosphate heads
interior: hydrophobic fatty acids

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9
Q

cell theory

A
  • all living things composed of cells
  • cell is the basic functional unit of life
  • cells only arise from preexisting cells
  • cells carry genetic info in the form of DNA
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10
Q

which cells have a nucleus? eukaryotes or prokaryotes

A

eukaryotes have a nucleus

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11
Q

cocci

A

spherical bacteria

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12
Q

bacilli

A

rod-shaped bacteria

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13
Q

spirilli

A

spiral-shaped bacteria

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14
Q

gram-positive bacteria

A

large quantities of peptidoglycan in the cell wall

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15
Q

gram-negative bacteria

A

small quantities of peptidoglycan with lipopolysaccharides

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16
Q

how does flagella differ in bacteria and eukaryotes?

A

eukaryotic flagella have a basal body which serves as the engine for motion

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17
Q

all prokaryotes divide by…

A

binary fission

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18
Q

describe how binary fission occurs

A

the circular chromosome replicates and attaches to the cell wall; the plasma membrane and cell wall grow along the midline, forming daughter cells

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19
Q

Explain the stages of cell division

A 
G1: cell increases organelles and cytoplasm
S: DNA replication
G2: same as G1
M: cell divides in 2
Mitoses = PMAT
Meiosis = PMAT x 2
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20
Q

in sexual reproduction, crossing over leads to … occurs in…

A

Crossing over leads to genetic recombination

in prophase I.

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21
Q

In meiosis I, homologous chromosomes separate during

A

metaphase I

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22
Q

meiosis II occurs in

A

Meiosis occurs in spermatogenesis (sperm
formation) and oogenesis
(egg formation).

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23
Q

stages of early development

A
  1. Cleavage = mitotic divisions
  2. Implantation = embryo implants during blastula stage
  3. Gastrulation: ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm form
  4. Neurulation: germ layers develop a nervous system
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24
Q

what forms out of the ectoderm?

A

Nervous system, epidermis, lens

of eye, inner ear

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25
Q

what forms out of the Endoderm?

A

Lining of digestive tract, lungs,

liver and pancreas

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26
Q

what forms out of the Mesoderm?

A

Muscles, skeleton, circulatory

system, gonads, kidney

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27
Q

Liver’s role in homeostasis (7)

A
  1. Gluconeogenesis
  2. Processing of nitrogenous wastes (urea)
  3. Detoxification of wastes/chemicals/drugs
  4. Storage of iron and vitamin A
  5. Synthesis of bile and blood proteins
  6. β-Oxidation of fatty acids to ketones
  7. Interconversion of carbohydrates, fats, and amino
    acids
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28
Q

Layers of the skin (5)

A
  • Stratum corneum
  • Stratum lucidum
  • Stratum granulosum
  • Stratum spinosum
  • Stratum basalis
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29
Q

osmoregulation- filtration:

  • occurs at
  • what happens
  • Passive and/or active?
A

Filtration

  • glomerulus
  • filtrate passes through
  • passive
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30
Q

osmoregulation- secretion:

  • occurs at
  • what happens
  • Passive and/or active?
A

Secretion

  • acids, bases, ions–interstitial fluid -> filtrate
  • maintains pH, [K+], and waste
  • BOTH passive and active
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31
Q

osmoregulation- reabsorption:

  • occurs at
  • what happens
  • Passive and/or active?
A

Reabsorption
- filtrate -> blood
enabled by osmolarity gradient and selective permeability of the walls
- Passive AND active

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32
Q

Aldosterone

  • effect on Na+, K+ H+, and H2O
  • secreted by
  • is regulated by
A

Aldosterone:

  • stimulates Na+ reabsorption, K+ and H+ secretion, increases water reabsorption, blood volume, and blood pressure
  • secreted by adrenal cortex
  • regulated by the renin- angiotensin-aldosterone system
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33
Q

ADH (Vasopressin)

  • function
  • affect on H2O
  • secreted from where and in response to what?
A

Increases collecting duct’s permeability to water to
increase water reabsorption
• Is secreted from posterior pituitary with high
[solute] in the blood

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34
Q

functional unit of the kidney

A

nephron

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35
Q

tropic hormones

A

stimulate other glands

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36
Q

Mechanisms of hormone action: peptides act via…

A

second messengers

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37
Q

Mechanisms of hormone action: steroids act via…

A

act via hormone/receptor

binding to DNA

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38
Q

FSH
source:
action:

A

Follicle-stimulating hormone

source: anterior pituitary
action: follicle maturation; spermatogenesis

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39
Q

LH
source:
action:

A

Luteinizing hormone

source: anterior pituitary
action: ovulation; testosterone synthesis

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40
Q

ACTH
source:
action:

A

Adrenocorticotropic hormone

source: anterior pituitary
action: stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete glucocorticoids

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41
Q

TSH
source:
action:

A

Thyroid-stimulating hormone

source: anterior pituitary
action: stimulates thyroid to produce thyroid hormone

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42
Q

Prolactin
source:
action:

A

Prolactin

source: anterior pituitary
action: stimulates milk production and secretion

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43
Q

Endorphins
source:
action:

A

Endorphins

source: anterior pituitary
action: inhibits the perception of pain in the brain

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44
Q

Growth hormone
source:
action:

A

Growth hormone

source: anterior pituitary
action: stimulates bone and muscle growth/lipolysis

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45
Q

Anterior pituitary hormones

A 
FLAT PEG
FSH
LH
ACTH
TSH
Prolactin
Endrophins
Growth hormone
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46
Q

Oxytocin
source:
stored in:
action:

A

Oxytocin

source: hypothalamus

stored in: pituitary

action: uterine contractions in labor; milk secretion in lactation

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47
Q

ADH/vasopressin
source:
stored in:
action:

A

ADH/vasopressin

source: hypothalamus

stored in: pituitary

Action: water reabsorption in kidneys

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48
Q

Thyroid hormones T3, T4 function

A

metabolic activity

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49
Q

Calcitonin
source:
action:

A

source: thyroid
action: decreases (tones down) blood calcium level

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50
Q

Parathyroid hormone

A

increases blood calcium level

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51
Q

Glucocorticoids
source:
action:

A

source: adrenal cortex
action: increases blood glucose level and decreases protein synthesis; anti-inflammatory

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52
Q

Mineralcorticoids
source:
action:

A

source: adrenal cortex
action: increases sodium and water reabsorption in kidney

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53
Q

Epinephrine/norepinephrine
source:
action:

A

source: adrenal medulla
action: increases blood glucose level and heart rate

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54
Q

Glucagon
source:
action:

A

source: pancreas
action: stimulates conversion glycogen to glucose in liver; increases blood glucose

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55
Q

Insulin
source:
action:

A

source: pancreas
action: lowers blood glucose; increases glycogen stores

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56
Q

hypothalamus hormones

A

oxytocin, ADH

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57
Q

adrenal cortex hormones

A

glucocorticoids, mineralcorticoids

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58
Q

pancreas hormones

A

glucagon, insulin, somatostatin

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59
Q

somatostatin
source:
action:

A

source: pancrease
action: supresses secretion of glucagon and insulin

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60
Q

testosterone
source:
action:

A

source: testes
action: maintains male secondary sex charcteristics

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61
Q

Estrogen
source:
action:

A

source: ovary/placenta
action: maintains female secondary sex characteristics

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62
Q

Progesterone
source:
action:

A

source: ovary/placenta
action: promotes growth/maintenance of endometrium

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63
Q

Melatonin
source:
action:

A

source : pineal gland

action: sleep-wake cycle regulation

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64
Q

atrial natriuretic peptide
source:
action:

A

source: heart
action: involved in osmoregulation and vasodilation

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65
Q

Thymosin
source:
action:

A

source: thymus
action: stimulates T-cell development

66
Q

Stages of the menstrual cycle: name and what happens

A
  1. Follicular: FSH causes growth of a follicle
  2. Ovulation: LH causes follicle to release egg
  3. Luteal: corpus lute forms
  4. Mensturation: endometrial lining sheds
67
Q

Menstruation stage where estrogen is the highest?

A

ovulation stage

68
Q

Menstruation stage where progesterone is highest

A

luteal stage

69
Q

Menstruation stage where there is a peak in LH

A

ovulation

70
Q

Menstruation stage where there is a peak in FSH

A

ovulation

71
Q

describe the resting potential of cells

A

3 Na+ pumped out for every 2K+ pumped in

72
Q

describe an action potential

A

stimulus acts on a neuron, depolarizing the membrane of the cell body

73
Q

describe impulse propagation

A

depolarization (Na+ rushing into axon) followed by depolarization (K+ rushing out of axon) along the nerve axon

74
Q

Describe the synapse

A
  • Synaptic knob–voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open, sending Ca2+ into the cell
  • Vesicles fuse w/ presynaptic membrane sending the NT across the synaptic clef
  • NT binds to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, triggering depolarization
75
Q

4 stages of an action potential

A

I: rest- all gates closed
II: depolarization- Na+ gates open
III: repolarization: Na+ gates inactivate K+ gates open
IV: hyper polarization- all gates close

76
Q

membrane potential of an action potential

A

+35 mV

77
Q

membrane potential of hyperpolarization

A

-90 mV

78
Q

membrane potential of resting potential

A

-70 mV

79
Q

membrane potential of threshold

A

-50 mV

80
Q

peripheral includes

A

sensory and motor

81
Q

motor includes

A

somatic and autonomic

82
Q

autonomic includes

A

parasympathetic and sympathetic

83
Q

sarcomere

A

contractile unit of the fibers in skeletal muscle; contains Thin actin and thick myosin filaments

84
Q

how muscles work- contraction: initiation

A

neuron depolarization leads to an action potential

85
Q

Sarcomere shortening

A

Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+
Ca2+ binds to troponin on the actin filament
Myosin binds, ATPase allows myosin to pull thin filaments toward the center of the H zone and the ATP causes dissociaiton

86
Q

How muscles work- relaxation

A

Ca2+ is pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum

87
Q

describe bone reformation

A

inorganic ions are absorbed from the blood for use in bone

88
Q

describe bone degradation (resorption)

A

inorganic ions are released into the blood

89
Q

Circulatory pathway through heart

A

Superior and inferior vena cava → right atrium →
right ventricle → pulmonary arteries → lungs→
pulmonary veins → left atrium → left ventricle →
aorta → body

90
Q

three portal systems in the heart

A

Liver (hepatic), kidney, and brain

hypophyseal

91
Q

Fetal circulation: foramen ovale

A

connects right and left atria

92
Q

Fetal circulation: ductus arteriosus

A

connects pulmonary artery
to aorta. Along with foramen ovale, shunts
blood away from lungs

93
Q

Fetal circulation: ductus venosus

A

connects umbilical vein
to inferior vena cava, connecting umbilical
circulation to central circulation

94
Q

blood components: plasma

A

aqueous mixture of nutrients, wastes,

hormones, blood proteins, gases, and salts

95
Q

blood components: erythrocytes

A

carry oxygen

96
Q

Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve–

factors leading to right shift of curve: (4)

A
  • increase temp, PCO2
  • decrease pH
  • bohr effect
97
Q

hemoglobin

A

4 subunits carry O2 and Co2; iron controls binding and releasing

98
Q

oxyhemoglobin equation

A

CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-

99
Q

platelets release ___ which does_____

A

platelets release thromboplastin which (along with cofactors calcium and vitamin K) converts active prothrombin to active thrombin

100
Q

function of thrombin

A

converts fibrinogen into fibrin which surrounds blood cells to form the clot

101
Q 
If you have Blood Type A:
RBC antigen:
Antibodies:
Donates to:
Receives from:
A 
Type A:
RBC antigen: A
Antibodies: anti-B
Donates to: A, AB
Receives from: A, O
102
Q 
If you have Blood Type B:
RBC antigen:
Antibodies:
Donates to:
Receives from:
A 
Type B: B
RBC antigen: anti-A
Antibodies: 
Donates to:
Receives from:
103
Q 
If you have Blood Type AB:
RBC antigen:
Antibodies:
Donates to:
Receives from:
A 
Type AB:
RBC antigen:
Antibodies:
Donates to:
Receives from:
104
Q 
If you have Blood Type O:
RBC antigen:
Antibodies:
Donates to:
Receives from:
A 
Type O:
RBC antigen:
Antibodies:
Donates to:
Receives from:
105
Q

Blood cells with RH factor =

A

RH+

these individuals produce no anti-Rh antibody

106
Q

Rh- blood cells

A

lack RH factor and these individuals produce an antibody if exposed

107
Q

Gas exchange occurs at

A

the alveoli

108
Q

Describe the gas exchange process in terms of deoxygenated blood, O2, and CO2-

A

deoxygenated blood enters the pulmonary capillaries that surround the alveoli Oxygen diffuses down its gradient into the capillaries where it binds with hemoglobin and returns to the heart. CO2 form the tissues diffuses from the capillaries to the alveoli and is exhaled.

109
Q

which has a higher affinity for oxygen, fetal or adult hemoglobin

A

fetal hemoglobin

110
Q

pancreatic amylase
production site:
Function site:
Hydrolysis rxn:

A

pancreatic amylase
production site: pancreas
Function site: small intestine
Hydrolysis rxn: starch -> maltose

111
Q

Salivary amylase (ptyalin)
production site:
Function site:
Hydrolysis rxn:

A

Salivary amylase (ptyalin)
production site: salivary glands
Function site: mouth
Hydrolysis rxn: starch -> maltose

112
Q

Maltase
production site:
Function site:
Hydrolysis rxn:

A

Maltase
production site: intestinal glands
Function site: small intestine
Hydrolysis rxn:maltose -> 2 glucoses

113
Q

Sucrase
production site:
Function site:
Hydrolysis rxn:

A

Sucrase
production site: intestinal glands
Function site: small intestine
Hydrolysis rxn: sucrose -> glucose, fructose

114
Q

Lactase
production site:
Function site:
Hydrolysis rxn:

A

Lactase
production site: intestinal glands
Function site: small intestine
Hydrolysis rxn: lactose -> glucose, galactose

115
Q

Pepsin
Production site:
Function site:
Function:

A

Pepsin
Production site: gastric glands (chief cells)
Function site: stomach
Function: hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds

116
Q

Trypsin
Production site:
Function site:
Function:

A

Trypsin
Production site: pancreas
Function site: small intestine
Function: hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds and converts chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin

117
Q

Chymotrypsin
Production site:
Function site:
Function:

A

Chymotrypsin
Production site: pancreas
Function site: small intestine
Function: hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds

118
Q

Carboxypeptidases A and B
Production site:
Function site:
Function:

A

Carboxypeptidases A and B
Production site: pancreas
Function site: small intestine
Function: hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at C-terminus

119
Q

Aminopeptidase
Production site:
Function site:
Function:

A

Aminopeptidase
Production site: intestinal glands
Function site: small intestine
Function: hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at N-terminus

120
Q

Dipeptidases
Production site:
Function site:
Function:

A

Dipeptidases
Production site: intestinal glands
Function site: small intestine
Function: hydrolyzes part of amino acids

121
Q

Enteropeptidase
Production site:
Function site:
Function:

A

Enteropeptidase
Production site: intestinal glands
Function site: small intestine
Function: converts trypsinogen and procarboxypeptidases to active form

122
Q

Which enzymes are produced in the pancreas? (3)

A

trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidases A and B

123
Q

Which enzymes are produced in the intestinal glands? (3)

A

Aminopeptidase, dipeptidase, enteropeptidase

124
Q

where does the majority of digestion take place?

A

small intestine

125
Q

Lipid digestion–when chime is present, the duodenum secretes ____ which does ____.

A

Lipid digestion–when chime is present, the duodenum secretes CCK into the blood which stimulates the secretion of pancreatic enzymes and bile, and promotes satiety

126
Q

Bile is made in the ____ and works on ___

A

Bile = liver = emulsifies fats

127
Q

lipase is an enzyme that is made in the ____ and works on ____

A

lipase = pancreas = hydrolyzes lipids

128
Q

law of segregation

A

homologous alleles (chromosomes) separate so that each gamete has one copy of each gene

129
Q

If both parents are Rr, the alleles separate to give a genotypic ratio of ____and a phenotypic ratio of____

A

genotypic ratio = 1:2:1

phenotypic ratio = 3:1

130
Q

Law of independent assortment

A

alleles of unlinked genes assort independently in meiosis

131
Q

In the law of independent assortment, for two traits, AaBb parents will produce ____ gametes and the phenotypic ratio is ____

A

AaBb = AB, Ab, aB, ab gametes

9:3:3:1

132
Q

What is the effect of crossing over during meiosis I

A

it can unlink genes (prophase I)

133
Q

Genes are most likely unlinked when (far apart/ close together)

A

unlinked genes are most likely far apart

134
Q

describe the pattern of inheritance in autosomal recessive

A

autosomal recessive may skip generations

135
Q

describe the pattern of inheritance in autosomal dominant

A

autosomal dominant appears in every generation

136
Q

describe the pattern of inheritance in X-linked

A

X linked = no male-to-male transmission; more males are affected

137
Q

The probability of producing a genotype that requires multiple events to occur equals the …

A

The probability of producing a genotype that requires multiple events to occur equals the product of the probability of each event

138
Q

The probability of producing a genotype that requires multiple different events equals the…

A

The probability of producing a genotype that requires multiple different events equals the sum of each probability minus the probability of multiple events occurring

139
Q

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium assumptions (5)

A 
no mutations
large population
random mating
no migration
equal reproductive success
140
Q

hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equations

A

p+q = 1
p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1

p = dominant allele
q = recessive allele
p^2 = dominant homozygotes
2pq = heterozygotes
q^2 = recessive homozygotes
141
Q

the basic unit of a nucleic acid is a ___ which is made up of…

A

basic unit of nucleic acid = nucleotide

made up of sugar, nitrogenous base, phosphate

142
Q

purines include

A

adenine and guanine (double ringed)

143
Q

pyrimidines include

A

cytosine, uracil, thymine (single-ringed)

144
Q

these genes have DNA that codes for proteins

A

structural genes

145
Q

these genes are the repressor binding site

A

operator genes

146
Q

transcriptional regulation in prokaryotes is regulated by the …

A

operon

147
Q

RNA polymerase’s 1st binding site is the ___ gene

A

promoter gene

148
Q

these systems need an inducer for transcription to occur

A

inducible systems

149
Q

these systems need a correpressor to inhibit transcription

A

repressible systems

150
Q

point mutations

A

one nucleotide is substituted by another; they are silent if the sequence of the aa doesn’t change

151
Q

frameshift mutations

A

insertions or deletions shift reading frame; protein doesn’t form or is nonfunctional

152
Q

describe a virus

A

accelular structures of double-or single-stranded DNA or RNA in a protein coat

153
Q

in the lytic cycle of viruses

A

virus kills the host cell

154
Q

in the lysogenic cycle of a virus

A

virus enters host genome

155
Q

plasmids

A

extragenomic material

156
Q

episomes

A

plasmids integrated into the genome

157
Q

transformation

A

bacteria gets gene material from environment and integrates it into the host cell genome

158
Q

the most common method of bacterial genetics whereby antibiotic resistance can be acquired

A

transformation

159
Q

conjugation

A

bacterial form of mating (sexual reproduction); sex pillus formed for transfer of genetic material from donor male (+) to recipient female (-)

160
Q

In order to form the pilus, bacteria must have certain plasmids known as

A

sex factors

161
Q

transduction

A

bacteriophage acquires genetic info from host cell

Sometimes when the new virions are assembled in a host cell, some of the genetic material from the host cell is packaged along w/ the viral genetic material. Then, the bacteriophage infects another bacterium, resulting in transfer of bacterial genetic material

Kaplan mcat flashcards (8 decks)

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