questions Flashcards
What is brain plasticity?
Brain plasticity is the capacity of the brain to reorganize its circuitry.
How are neurochemistry and behavior related?
Behavior affects neurochemistry.
What is the effect of environmental events on schizophrenia?
Environmental events may cause schizophrenia, resulting in increased activity in dopaminergic systems.
What are the two divisions of the peripheral nervous system?
The two divisions are the somatic and autonomic nervous system.
What are the functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?
The sympathetic system readies the body for action, while the parasympathetic system shuts down the digestive process.
What can an overactive autonomic nervous system lead to?
An overactive autonomic nervous system can increase readiness to acquire phobias or other anxiety disorders.
What is the heritable component for level of emotionality?
There is a heritable component for level of emotionality.
How can deficits in the regulation of ANS functions influence behavior?
Deficits in regulation of ANS functions can influence disordered behavior.
What can decreased parasympathetic regulation of heart rate and respiration indicate?
Decreased parasympathetic regulation of heart rate and respiration can indicate generalized anxiety disorder (GAD).
What can an inflexibility of the autonomic and somatic systems manifest as in GAD?
An inflexibility of the autonomic and somatic systems can manifest as constant worry and an inability to control or stop the worry in GAD.
What type of thought can predict later symptoms of GAD?
Repetitive thought can predict later symptoms of GAD, not depression.
How does the endocrine system interact with the CNS?
The endocrine system and CNS interact in a feedback loop to maintain homeostatic levels of hormones circulating in the bloodstream.
What is the HPA axis?
The HPA axis refers to the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal cortex axis.
What is the role of cortisol in the HPA axis?
Cortisol is released into the bloodstream by the adrenal cortex in the HPA axis and has anti-inflammatory effects and other survival benefits.
What is implicated in the etiology of depression and anxiety?
Sensitivity to stress is implicated in the etiology of depression and anxiety.
What can sensitivity to stress lead to?
Sensitivity to stress can lead to an increase in the number of intracellular glucocorticoid receptors.
What is cretinism?
Cretinism is a condition characterized by dwarf-like appearance and mental disability, resulting from a defective thyroid gland.
What happens in hypoglycemia?
In hypoglycemia, the pancreas fails to produce insulin.
Is human behavior solely determined by inherited characteristics?
No, human behavior is not solely determined by inherited characteristics.
What does behavioral genetics offer insight into?
Behavioral genetics offers insight into the biological bases of abnormal functioning.
What does genotype-environment interaction suggest?
Genotype-environment interaction suggests a reciprocal relationship between genetic predisposition and environmental risk factors.
What kind of interaction is required to explain the onset of a disorder?
A complex interaction of both genetic predisposition and environmental risk factors is required to explain the onset of a disorder.
What did a study investigate the link between?
A study investigated the link between a gene involved in serotonin transmission, stressful life events, and depression.
How did people with different alleles of the gene cope differently?
People with two LL alleles of the gene coped better than people with two SS alleles of the gene.
What did the study find in terms of depression?
There was no direct link between the gene and depression.
When did people with two SS alleles develop depression?
People with two SS alleles developed depression only if they also experienced stressful life events.
What environmental factor increases the risk of developing schizophreniform disorder?
The use of cannabis increases the risk of developing schizophreniform disorder.
What type of studies investigate the genetic bases of psychiatric disorders?
Family studies, twin studies, adoption studies, genetic linkage studies, and molecular biology studies.
What are some methods used in genetic linkage studies?
Methods used in genetic linkage studies include analyzing DNA markers and identifying genetic variants.
What are some methods used in molecular biology studies?
Methods used in molecular biology studies include examining gene expression and protein analysis.
How can comparing different studies contribute to understanding genetic bases of psychiatric disorders?
Comparing different studies can help identify consistent findings and patterns in the genetic bases of psychiatric disorders.
What are the different forms in which hallucinogens like mushrooms and MDMA are ingested?
They can be ingested in capsule or tablet form or as a liquid applied to a small paper and then placed on the tongue.
Who discovered LSD?
LSD was discovered by Swiss chemist Hoffman.
What is PCP and how is it consumed?
PCP is a dissociative anaesthetic that is smoked.
What is the prevalence of hallucinogen use in one’s lifetime?
The prevalence of hallucinogen use at some point in life is 13.1%.
What are the effects of hallucinogens dependent on?
The effects of hallucinogens depend on variables like personality and the amount ingested.
What is the prevalence of hallucinogen use within one year?
The use of hallucinogens within one year is less than 1%.
What role does the setting play in the effects of hallucinogens?
The setting is very important in determining the effects of hallucinogens.
What are some sensory experiences associated with hallucinogens?
Hallucinogens can cause vivid visual hallucinations.
What is synesthesia in the context of hallucinogens?
Synesthesia is the transference of stimuli from one sense to another.
How do hallucinogens affect the central nervous system?
Hallucinogens have an excitatory effect on the CNS.
How do hallucinogens mimic the effects of serotonin?
Hallucinogens mimic the effects of serotonin by acting on serotonin receptors.
What are flashbacks in relation to hallucinogens?
Flashbacks are unpredictable recurrences of some physical or perceptual distortions experienced during a trip.
What is Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder?
Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder is applied if flashbacks cause significant distress or interfere with social or occupational functioning.
What is the addictive potential of hallucinogens?
Hallucinogens have little addictive potential.
What is the frequency of heavy hallucinogen use?
Heavy users of hallucinogens rarely consume them more than once every few weeks.
What happens when a user develops tolerance to hallucinogens?
When a user develops tolerance to hallucinogens, they no longer experience the hallucinogenic effects, but the physiological effects are still present.
What are the short-term effects of gambling?
Gambling provides short-lived pleasurable feelings and relief from negative feelings.
What can gambling induce in terms of mood and arousal?
Gambling can alter mood and level of arousal, inducing an altered state of perception.
What is the prevalence of gambling among adults?
Approximately 80% of adults gamble.
Which form of gambling is the most popular?
Lottery games are the most popular form of gambling.
What is Gambling Disorder?
Gambling Disorder is included in the substance-related and addictive disorders.
Are gambling and other addictive disorders considered equal?
Gambling and other addictive disorders are considered as cross-addictions and functionally equal forms of behavior that satisfy similar needs.
How many problem gamblers attend formal treatment?
As few as 10% of problem gamblers will attend formal treatment.
What strategies are used in treating problem gamblers?
Brief treatments focusing on motivational issues are effective for treating problem gamblers, similar to other addictive disorders.
What is the twofold strategy used in self-help workbooks for problem gamblers?
The twofold strategy involves incorporating practical information about recovery strategies into a brief self-help workbook and providing brief telephone support focused on motivation to implement the change strategies.
What type of interventions have been used for gambling disorders?
Web-based interventions with cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) have been employed for gambling disorders.
What percentage of cases is essential hypertension?
Almost 90% of cases of hypertension are essential, meaning that the cause cannot be identified.
What is a stress reactivity paradigm used for?
A stress reactivity paradigm is used to examine how psychological factors affect physiological ones.
What does cardio reactivity refer to?
Cardio reactivity refers to how much a person’s cardiovascular function changes in response to a psychologically significant stimulus.
What physiological factors are influenced by stress reactivity?
Heart rate, blood pressure, peripheral resistance, hormones, blood pumped by the left ventricle, and abnormalities in chamber wall motion are influenced.
How does stress affect the stickiness of blood platelets?
Stressors can reverse the reduction in stickiness of blood platelets produced by dietary supplements containing essential fatty acids.
What does cardio reactivity contribute to?
Cardio reactivity contributes to the development of atherosclerosis.
What was observed in monkeys raised in an experimental colony?
Monkeys who showed a higher increase in heart rate in reaction to threat also showed significant more atherosclerosis.
How can socially disrupting monkeys promote the development of atherosclerosis?
Repeatedly moving monkeys between groups can promote the development of atherosclerosis, even without feeding them an atherogenic diet.
What was the best predictor of worsening atherosclerosis over two years in a study?
The magnitude of systolic blood pressure during the Stroop colour-word conflict test was the best predictor.
What personality type is twice as likely to die from heart disease?
Type A personality is twice as likely to die from heart disease.
Which trait of Type A personality mainly accounts for increased risk of heart disease?
Hostility is the main trait accounting for increased risk of heart disease.
What are the three components of hostility?
Affective, cognitive/attitudinal, and behavioral components.
What is the psychophysiological reactivity model?
The psychophysiological reactivity model suggests that hostile people are at higher risk because they experience exaggerated autonomic and neuroendocrine responses during stress.
What is the psychosocial vulnerability model?
The psychosocial vulnerability model suggests that hostile people experience a more demanding interpersonal life.
What is the transactional model?
The transactional model suggests that the behavior of hostile people constructs a social world that is antagonistic and unsupportive, leading to increased vulnerability.
What is the health behavior model?
The health behavior model suggests that hostile people may be more likely to engage in unhealthy behaviors and less likely to engage in healthy practices.
What is the final theory linking hostility to poor health outcomes?
The final theory suggests that the link between hostility and poor health outcomes is the result of a third variable: constitutional vulnerability.
What are the two generic approaches to the management of stress?
The two generic approaches are relaxation training and cognitive behavioral techniques.
What is the goal of relaxation training?
The goal of relaxation training is to prevent or inhibit stress-induced physiological and neuroendocrine responses.
What is the focus of cognitive behavioral techniques?
Cognitive behavioral techniques focus on helping a person identify thinking styles that promote stress and devise new ways of thinking and acting to counteract stress.
What do interventions directed toward specific psychosocial variables aim to do?
Interventions directed toward specific psychosocial variables aim to play a role in the etiology of disease.
What did a study on stress-management for hypertension find?
Such interventions produced significant reductions in systolic blood pressure.
What type of interventions produce marked reductions in systolic blood pressure?
Interventions that involve many components or that are individualized based on the patient’s psychological traits produce marked reductions in systolic blood pressure.
What is construct validity and why is it important for psychological testing?
Construct validity refers to the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. It is important for psychological testing because if a test does not have good construct validity, it may not accurately assess the intended psychological construct.
What is the clinical approach in patient assessment?
The clinical approach argues that there is no substitute for the clinician’s experience and personal judgment, guided by intuition and personal experience.
What is the actuarial approach in patient assessment?
The actuarial approach relies on unbiased, scientifically validated statistical procedures and empirical methods for patient assessment.
Why do clinicians continue to rely on the clinical approach despite research favoring the actuarial approach?
Despite research favoring the actuarial approach, clinicians continue to rely on the clinical approach due to their belief in the importance of their experience and personal judgment.
Why is it important to conduct a medical examination along with a psychological one in biological assessment?
A medical examination is important to rule out any physiological bases for a disorder that may cause similar symptoms to some mental disorders. Examples include thyroid dysfunction, brain tumors, or epilepsy.
What is an EEG and how is it used in biological assessment?
EEG (Electroencephalography) uses electrodes placed on the scalp to measure electrical activity in the brain. It can detect seizure disorders, brain lesions, and tumors.
What are the uses of computed tomography (CT) in brain imaging?
CT uses a band of x-rays projected through the head to produce 2D brain images. It helps improve resolution by injecting iodinated radiopaque and has confirmed ideas about brain functioning in psychopathology.
What are some brain abnormalities observed in neurological disorders using brain imaging techniques?
Using brain imaging techniques, cortical atrophy has been observed in Alzheimer’s and schizophrenia, smaller frontal lobes in schizophrenia, smaller cerebellums in autism, and tissue loss in bipolar disorder.
What is magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and what does it reveal in brain imaging?
MRI reveals the structure and function of the brain. It involves creating a magnetic field around the patient’s head, causing atoms with odd atomic weights to align their electrons parallel to the electric field. This allows the detection of decreased grey matter volume and cortical thinning in schizophrenia.
What is functional MRI (fMRI) and what does it provide in brain imaging?
fMRI provides a dynamic view of metabolic changes in the active brain. It helps study brain activation patterns and has revealed, for example, decreased activation of the right prefrontal cortex in patients with schizophrenia, potentially related to negative symptoms.
What is positron emission tomography (PET) and how is it used in brain imaging?
PET combines computerized tomography with radioisotope imaging. It involves injecting or inhaling radioactive isotopes with short half-lives, which emit radiation that is measured by PET equipment. It helps detect abnormal metabolic activity or reduced blood flow in different brain regions.
What are the main differences between CT/MRI and PET/fMRI in brain imaging?
CT and MRI produce static anatomical images of the brain, while PET and fMRI produce dynamic images. Clinicians use both to detect abnormal metabolic activity or reduced blood flow in the brain.
How is neuropsychological testing used to determine the relationship between behavior and brain function?
Neuropsychological testing helps determine the relationship between behavior and brain function. For example, the Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test is often used, which involves copying and reproducing drawings to detect neuropsychological dysfunction.
What are the specific impairments to look for in the Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test?
When administering the Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test, specific impairments to look for include rotation of figures, preservation, fragmentation, oversimplification, inability to copy angles, and reversals. It’s important to consider age-normed results due to differences in ability at different ages.
What are battery tests in neuropsychological assessment, and what is an example?
Battery tests examine multiple facets of a disorder. An example is the Halstead-Reitan test, which includes subtests such as the category test for frontal lobe function, the rhythm test for right temporal lobe functioning, and the tactual performance test for visual perception.
What is the diagnostic criteria for Bipolar I?
One or more manic episodes with or without a major depressive episode.
Is the presence of a depressive episode required for Bipolar I diagnosis?
No, it is not required but most patients have it.
How prevalent is Bipolar I?
0.8%
What are the diagnostic criteria for Bipolar II?
One or more hypomanic episodes and one or more major depressive episodes.
Is Bipolar II more difficult to diagnose than Bipolar I?
Yes.
What is the prevalence of Bipolar II?
0.5%
What is the duration of manic/hypomanic episodes in Bipolar disorder?
2 weeks to 4 months.
What is the duration of depressive episodes in Bipolar disorder?
6-9 months.
What are the rates of suicide in patients diagnosed with Bipolar disorder?
10-15%
At what age does Bipolar disorder typically onset?
Around 20 years.
When do 50% of patients with Bipolar disorder report first symptoms?
Around age 17.
What is cyclothymia?
A chronic but less severe form of Bipolar disorder.
What is the prevalence of cyclothymia?
0.4-1%
Are rates of cyclothymia equal in men and women?
Yes.
What should be done with caution when treating cyclothymia?
Using antidepressants, as they can trigger a full-blown manic episode in vulnerable patients.
What is the rapid cycling specifier in Bipolar disorder?
Presence of 4 or more manic and/or major depressive episodes in 12 months.
What are the associated features with rapid cycling Bipolar disorder?
Higher disability and poor treatment response.
Can antidepressants induce or worsen rapid cycling?
Yes.
What should be prescribed alongside antidepressants for rapid cycling patients?
A mood stabilizer like lithium.
What is Mood Disorder with Seasonal Pattern (SAD)?
Recurrent depressive episodes tied to changing seasons, particularly occurring in winter.
What is the prevalence of Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) in Canada?
2.3%
What percentage of patients with Major Depressive Disorder have SAD?
11%
How does melatonin play a role in SAD?
Melatonin levels increase in winter as nights grow longer, resulting in less switch from sleep to wakefulness.
What is the term for the dysregulation of the natural sleep/wake cycle in SAD?
Phase-Delayed Circadian Rhythm.
Do medications suppressing melatonin release relieve SAD symptoms?
No.
What is Mood Disorder with Peri- or Postpartum Onset?
Mood swings and feelings of depression experienced by new mothers, with severe cases meeting criteria for major depressive or manic episodes.
What percentage of women experience mood swings after childbirth?
As many as 70%.
In what percentage of new moms do mood swings become chronic and severe?
10-15%.
What is the rate of suicide in postpartum psychosis?
5%.
What is the rate of infanticide in postpartum psychosis?
4%.
What is the precursor to an ulcer?
The bacterium Helicobacter pylori.
What are the primary roles of Helicobacter pylori in the genesis of ulcers?
Attacking the lining of the stomach and being present in large amounts of people with ulcer disease.
What is the impact of stress on ulcer formation?
Stress may make a person more vulnerable to the influence of Helicobacter pylori.
What percentage of people who test positive for Helicobacter pylori show evidence of ulcer?
Only 20%.
What role do psychosocial variables play in ulcer cases?
Psychosocial variables are probably involved in 30-65% of ulcer cases.
What is ischemic heart disease?
A condition where the blood supply to the heart becomes compromised.
What is myocardial infarction?
A heart attack caused by the compromised blood supply to the heart.
What is a stroke?
An interruption of the blood supply to the brain leading to the death of neural tissue.
How is potential years of life lost (PYLL) calculated?
By subtracting the age of death from a person’s life expectancy.
What are the functions of the cardiovascular system?
Providing nutrients and oxygen, eliminating waste, and delivering blood through the body.
What acts as a pump in the cardiovascular system?
The heart.
What is systole?
The phase when the heart pumps blood into the major arteries.
What is diastole?
The rest phase of the heart during the cardiac cycle.
What are the two influences on blood pressure (BP)?
The amount of liquid being pushed into the hose and the diameter of the tubing (blood vessels).
What determines cardiac output?
The rate at which the heart beats and the amount of blood ejected on each beat.
What determines total peripheral resistance?
The diameter of the blood vessels.
How does the sympathetic (S) system affect blood pressure?
Activation of the S system speeds up the heart rate, producing an increase in cardiac output and blood pressure.
How does the parasympathetic (P) system affect blood pressure?
Activation of the P system opposes the effects of the S system, leading to decreased heart rate.
What reinforces the changes produced by the sympathetic system arousal?
The release of catecholamines.
How are catecholamines distributed in the cardiovascular system?
They are circulated through the bloodstream, interacting with blood constituents and lining vessel walls.
What is atherosclerosis?
The buildup of deposits (plaques) on the walls of blood vessels, narrowing the artery openings.
What are some modifiable risk factors for atherosclerosis?
Dietary factors, smoking, and high cholesterol.
What are some protective factors against atherosclerosis?
Physical activity and exercise.
What is hypertension?
A high level of resting blood pressure.
What are the cardinal features of panic disorder?
Experiencing unexpected attacks and having marked apprehension & worry over experiencing additional attacks.
How is panic disorder diagnosed?
Through structured / semi-structured interviews, behavioral avoidance tests, symptom induction tests, psychological assessment, and self-report questionnaires.
What are some biological factors associated with panic disorder?
It runs in families, with relatives of probands being 5x more likely to develop it, but no specific genetic markers have been found. Biological challenges, such as hyperventilation, can induce panic attacks more frequently in individuals with panic disorder.
What is nocturnal panic?
It refers to panic attacks that occur while sleeping. Many with panic disorder report having this, with a sense of losing control or fear of letting go possibly underlying the panic-inducing properties.
What are some cognitive theories of panic disorder?
They suggest that individuals with panic disorder catastrophically misinterpret bodily sensations, interpreting them as a sign that something must be wrong. This causes further worry, leading to a sense of being out of control and experiencing a panic attack.
What is anxiety sensitivity?
It is the belief that the somatic symptoms related to anxiety will have negative consequences that extend beyond the panic episode itself.
What is the alarm theory of panic disorders?
It proposes that fight or flight/fear responses become activated in the presence of false alarms, which are emotionally charged objective threats. The attack and the triggering situation become associated with neural cues through classical conditioning, leading to fear and apprehension of external stimuli and internal sensations.
What is the prevalence of specific phobia in the population?
8.7% of the population is diagnosed with specific phobia per year, with a lifetime prevalence of 12.5%, which is higher in females.
What are some differences in fear prevalence across gender?
Women have more fears related to animals and situations, while men and women are equal in fear of injections and dental procedures. Across all stimuli, women have higher fear levels.
What are the diagnostic criteria for specific phobia?
There must be a marked and persistent fear of the object or situation, and exposure to the stimulus must invariably produce excessive and unreasonable anxiety.
What are the different subtypes of specific phobia?
- Animal type, 2. Natural environment type, 3. Blood injection-injury type, 4. Situational type, 5. Other type
How does having a phobia from one subtype increase the chances of developing a phobia within the same category?
For example, fear of snakes can increase the chances of developing a fear of spiders rather than thunder.
What is illness phobia?
It is an intense fear of developing a disease that the person currently does not have.
What is the classical conditioning theory of fear regarding the etiology of phobias?
It is an associative model that assumes all neutral stimuli have an equal potential for becoming phobias. However, this premise is false as many stimuli seem to be consistently related to phobias.
What is the non-associative model regarding the etiology of phobias?
This model suggests that humans have evolved to respond fearfully to a select group of stimuli, and no learning is needed to develop these fears. It is supported by the high heritability of select phobias in families.
What is a criticism of the non-associative model of phobias?
The question raised is why not all adults have phobias toward evolutionarily dangerous stimuli.
What is the counterargument to the criticism of the non-associative model of phobias?
Counterarguments suggest that not all adults have phobias toward evolutionarily dangerous stimuli due to various factors or individual differences.
What are the two types of pharmacotherapy commonly used for BPD?
Lithium and Anticonvulsants
How do mood stabilizers like Lithium act in BPD treatment?
They may act via deactivating enzyme GSK-3B or by antagonizing glutamate
What are the side effects of Lithium?
Nausea, drowsiness, rash, tremor, weight gain
Why should pregnant women or people with liver problems avoid Lithium?
It is not well tolerated in these individuals or may become ineffective over time
When are antipsychotics and antidepressants used in BPD treatment?
Antipsychotics are used in acute manic or severe depressive episodes, while antidepressants help with hallucinations and can act as sleep-promoters for insomnia
What is the least risky antidepressant for BPD treatment?
Bupropion
What are the side effects of antipsychotics?
Increased risk of diabetes & cholesterol, tardive dyskinesia, facial tics, muscle spasms
What type of therapy is recommended for severely depressed patients?
Both medication and psychological therapy (combo)
What types of therapy are recommended for persistent depression?
Both medication and psychological therapy (combo)
What types of therapy are recommended for non-persistent or mild depression?
No advantage of combination therapy, medication alone is sufficient
What are the suggested treatments in adjunct to medication for BPD?
Family-focused therapy, interpersonal and social rhythm therapy, cognitive therapy
What is the recommended treatment for SAD?
Phototherapy (mimics sunlight for 30 min to 2 hrs)
What is electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) used for in BPD treatment?
Apply electrical current to the brain, more effective than medication and sham ECT
What should be monitored during ECT therapy?
Memory impairment, which can persist for months; reduced if current applied to 1 side of the brain
What is the mechanism of action of transcranial magnetic stimulation?
It stimulates nerve cells in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex using a large electromagnetic coil
How does vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) work?
A surgically implanted pulse generator activates the vagus nerve to deliver stimulation to the brain periodically
What is the initial effect of vagus nerve stimulation with a surgically implanted generator?
It works better than the sham condition; however, it loses effect after about 10 weeks
Which neurostimulation treatment shows the least efficacy?
Deep brain stimulation
What is the cultural perspective on suicide in the West and Japan?
In the West, it is considered a crime, while in Japan, it is respected as a way to atone for failure
How many deaths and attempts by suicide occur worldwide?
Approximately 1 million deaths and 10-20 million attempts
What causes death in Canada among the top 10 leading causes?
Suicide, with a rate of 11.3 per 100 people
What is the leading cause of death among youth in Canada?
Suicide, which is the 2nd leading cause
What is the leading cause of death for teenagers aged 15 to 19?
Suicide (1st cause of death)
What behaviours encompass suicidal behaviours?
Suicidal ideation and suicidal gestures
What is the main treatment approach for Social Anxiety Disorder?
CBT group therapy that integrates cognitive restructuring and exposure.
What can enhance the learning during exposure treatment for Social Anxiety Disorder?
D-cycloserine, which works on NMDA receptors in the amygdala.
What are the recommended treatments for Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)?
Antidepressants, azapirones, and CBT.
Which treatment is most recommended for reducing pathological worry in GAD?
CBT therapy.
What are the recommended treatments for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)?
Exposure and ritual prevention (ERP), clomipramine, fluvoxamine, and cognitive-behavioral interventions.
What are the recommended treatments for Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD)?
CBT therapy with cognitive restructuring and exposure, along with pharmacotherapy using SSRIs.
What are the effective treatments for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)?
Facing the trauma, discussing it in detail, imaginal exposure, cognitive reprocessing, cognitive-behavioral conjoint therapy, and psychological debriefing (if not intervened too early).
What is the most effective treatment for Anxiety Disorders (ADs)?
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT).
What is the historical explanation of mental disorders in ancient times?
Mental disorders were explained as possession by supernatural forces.
Who coined the term ‘Manic Depression’ and described manic and depressive forms of the disorder?
Emil Kraepelin.
