chapter 2 Flashcards
what are the two main thoughts on mental disorders
biological and environmental
Biological aspects
downplay the influence of experience
Environmental influences
emphasize external factors (poverty and parenting styles)
what are the three main approaches to viewing mental disorder
Biological & psychodynamic, Humanistic & existential, Behavioural & cognitive
Biological & psychodynamic
view dysfunctional behaviour as the product of forces beyond the individual’s control
Bio encourages a physical basis for disorders – leads to
formulation of a diagnostic system that classifies people as disorder & implies that physical interventions should be the treatment
Humanistic & existential
lay responsibility for action & choices on the individual
Personal experience provides the basis for the development of self-directed behaviour
Behavioural & cognitive
a mix of external and internal factors produce dysfunctions
The way that people are conditioned to learn and the way they think or perceive the world causes the
development
what does the behavioural cognitive approach emphasize
classification of behaviours not people
Seek environmental events that shape dysfunctional responses
behavioural and cogntive approach treatment
manipulating environment or modifying perception / schema / beliefs of people
regarding experience and self
Adopting one of these theories is influenced by
the prevailing social belief system & the individual’s disposition to see human behaviour as being determined by factors beyond or within their control
what are the leves of theories
single factor explanation and interactionist explanation
sing-factor explanation
: attempts to trace the origins of a disorder to one factor
Interactionist explanation
behaviour is the product of interactions between a variety of factors
Can be classified according to their level of explanation
Ex: Maslow’s theory of self-actualization tries to explain all human behaviour while Freud’s try to explain abnormal behaviour
Theories embody 3 features
- Integrate most of what is currently known about the phenomena in the simplest way (parsimony)
- Make testable predictions about aspects of the phenomena that weren’t previously thought of
- Make possible to specify what evidence would deny the theory
Why do theories gain strength?
Evidence supports their predictions
Alternative explanations are rejected
Null Hypothesis
proposes that the prediction made from the theory is false
When you reject it, it provides support for a theory BUT theories are NOT factors and can NEVER be PROVEN to be true
Etiology
the causes or origins of a disorder
General aims of theories
Explain the etiology of behaviour
Identify factors that maintain the behaviour
Predict the course of the disorder
Design effective treatments
Factors involved in the etiology may not be involved in
its maintenance
In disorders where there is a clear biological cause
environmental manipulations may alleviate or prevent
the development of the most serious symptoms
Phenylketonuria (PKU) found in the diet
When detected in newborns, it’s possible to prevent development of severe symptoms like
retardation by administering a diet low in PKU-containing foods
using cognitive therapy methods in depressed & anxious people can change their neurobiology
Decreases activation of the amygdala / hippocampal regions associated w/ negative affect
Increased activation of areas involved in cognitive control of negative emotion
Theories of the etiology of mental disorders
Biological
Psychodynamic
Behavioural & Cognitive
Humanistic & Existentialist
Socio-cultural
Integrative
Biological Models
Adopt the language of medicine = patients, symptoms, treatments
CNS damage is the focus + PNS dysfunction (somatic + autonomic) + endocrine system dysfunction
CNS
Brain has ~100 billion neurons & thousands of billions of glia cells
what three brain regions are in the CNS
forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain
forebrain
speech, perception, memory, learning, planning
midbrain
reticular activating system = control arousal and attention
hindbrain
directs the function og the autonomic NS
Current theories about the brain bases of abnormal behaviour
They focus on the role of neurotransmitters and not neuronal damage
Most research is done on GABA, norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine
Abnormal behaviour can result from disturbances in ligands in many ways
Too little / much of the ligand produced or released into the synapse
Too few / many receptors on the dendrites
Too few / many ligand-deactivating subs in the synapse
The reuptake process is too rapid / slow
problems with any of the ligand =
alterations in the brain circuits
current research shows that disturbance sin the ligan systems have
general effects
interactions of ligands and subtypes are related to behaviour
Inferring a causal relationship btw disturbances in ligands & abnormal behaviour
Dopamine antagonists are used to treat schizophrenia
neurochemistry and behaviour are bidirectional
Brain Plasticity
capacity of the brain to reorganize its circuitry – influenced by
experienced that occur pre- and postnatally
Ligand function affects behaviour but
behaviour affects neurochemistry
PNS
Somatic and autonomic NS
Autonomic (ANS)
sympathetic + parasympathetic
These systems work cooperatively but in terms of stress
they act antagonistically
Its response is exaggeratedly strong or remarkably week
Sympathetic
readies body for action
Parasympathetic
shuts down digestive process
Overactive ANS
increase readiness to acquire phobias or other anxiety disorders
Deficits in regulation of ANS functions can influence
disordered behaviour
patient with GAD tend to show
decreased parasympathetic regulation of heart rate &
respiration – also show chronic muscle tension (somatic system)
there’s an inflexibility of
the autonomic and somatic systems in GAD
ES and CNS interact in a
feedback loop
It maintains homeostatic levels of hormones circulating in the bloodstream
order of ES2
ES
hypothalamus
pituitary (“master gland”)
adrenal cortex
cortisol (anti-inflammatory)
HPA: hypothalamic pituitary-adrenal cortex axis
Has been studied in regard to anxiety and depression
It involves the release of cortisol into the bloodstream by the adrenal cortex
It increases the # of intracellular glucocorticoid receptors, leading to anti-inflammatory effects & other survival benefits
Sensitivity to stress is implicated in
the etiology of depression and anxiety
Cretinism
dwarf-life appearance and mental disability – result of defective thyroid gland
Hypoglycemia
pancreas fails to produce insulin
Genetics and behaviour
Idea that human behaviour is inherited
Inherited features interact with the environment to produce behaviour
Genetic Determinism
who a person is, is determined largely by inherited characteristics
Behavioural Genetics
offers insight into the biological bases of abnormal functioning BUT in psychopathology,
genes confer a liability – not a certainty.
Genotype-environment interaction
genes may influence behaviour that contribute to environmental stressors which increases the risk of psychopathology
what does the G-E interaction suggest
a reciprocal relationship between genetic predisposition and environmental risk factors
Neither one can explain the onset of the disorder- A complex interaction of both is required
Study: investigated the link between
A gene involved in serotonin transmission
Stressful life events
Depression
what were the results of the study
People with two LL alleles of the gene coped better than people with two SS alleles of the
gene
No direct link between the gene and depression
what can be determined from the results of the study
people with two SS alleles developed depression only if they also
experienced stressful life events
Behavioural research into the genetic bases of psychiatric disorders
Family studies – pedigree
Twin studies
Adoption studies
Genetic linkage studies
Molecular biology studies
molecular biology studies
When comparing one with another, if the problem arises in both, they are said to be concordant for
the problem. BUT this isn’t always true because environmental influences can be involved
(2) Psychodynamic Theories
Suggest that behaviour is motivated by unconscious processes acquired during the formative years of life
See the person as having little control over their action (Similar to the biological theories)
freud on psychodynamic theories
: traumatic experiences early on become repressed because they’re too distressing
Features of Freud that determine current behaviour and thinking
- Levels of consciousness
- Structures of personality
- Psychosexual stages of development
levels of consciousness
3 levels
conscious
preconscious
unconscious
conscious
info that we are aware of
preconscious
info which we can bring into awareness
unconcscious
info that can only be brought to awareness with difficulty and techniques
i. Most of our memories, motivations and drives are unconscious
ii. Kept unconscious by Defense Mechanisms
Defense Mechanisms
- The use of these mechanism depleted psychic energy psych dysfunction
structures of personality
3 that are in constant conflict
ID
Ego
Superego
ID
present at birth & contains/represents our biologically instinctual drives
i. Drives that demand instant gratification w/o regard for consequences
ii. Acts according to the pleasure principle
Ego
first year of life, curbs the desires of the ID so that the person doesn’t suffer
i. It has no concern of right vs. wrong
ii. Concern for avoidance of pain and discomfort + maximization of unpunished pleasure
iii. Acts by the Reality principle
superego
internalization of the moral standards of society & parents
i. Acts on the Moral Principle
ii. Serves as the person’s conscience by monitoring the ego
psychosexual stages of development
oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
oral
birth – 18months, focus on oral activities
anal
18months – 3yrs, toilet training
cooperation or resistance
phallic
3-6yrs, Oedipal or Electra complex
latency
6-12yrs, consolidation of behavioural skills and attitudes
genital
adolescence, achievement of personal and sexual maturity
defense mechanisms
repression
regression
projhection
intellectualization
denial
displacement
reaction formation
sublimation
repression
inability to recall something
regression
acting childlike
projection
attributing your own desires to others
intellectualization
hiding the real issues behind abstract analyses
denial
refusal to aknowledge
displacement
angry at your spouse because you got fired ex
reaction formation
expressing the opposite viewpoint
behavioural theories
watson
what did watson say
classicla conditioning is the basis upon which human behaviour is learned
stimulus-stimulus learning
transfer of a conditioned or unconditioned response from one stimulus to another
acquisition of phobias
a neutral stimulus, over time and experience, elicits a conditioned fear response
what is the problem with watsons view on acquisition of phobias
over-generalization
it cannot explain the many facets of phobias
two factor theory of conditioning
solution by Mowrer
2 types of learning take place in the acquisition and maintenance of phobias
classical conditioning
establishes the aversive response to a previously neutral stimulus
what happens after classical conditioning
human avoids the ocnditioned stimulus to prevent fear and is why we prevent extinction
operant conditioning skinner
all behaviours are guided by consequence
positive reinforcement
behaviour is increase bc it leads to pleasant consequences
neg reinforcement
behaviour is increased bc it leads to a reduction of stress
pos punishment
behaviour is reduced bc it leads to unpleasant experiences
neg punishment
behviour is reduced due to the removal of something desirable
social learning theory
learn by observing others rather than by direct personal experience
cognitive behavioural theory
thinking and behaviour aare learned therefore both can be changed
cognitive theories
aim to help people shift from unhealthy appraisals to more realistic adaptive ones
what is the treatment used in cogntiive theories
change schemas and underlying beliefs/ develop mroe realistic and adaptive cognition
rational-emotive behavioural therapy
consequences of life events are not contigent upon the activating event but are mediated by ones beliefs about these experiences
we can learn to change how we think
cognitive theory and therapy
emotions and behaviours are influence by perception or cogntiive appraisals of events
what are the levels of cognition
schemas
information-processing biases and intermediate beliefs
automatic thoughts
shcemas
early maladaptive schemas can originate from repetitious, aversive experiences in childhood
what are the three things schemas do
a. Can influence how someone processes life experiences
b. Develop early but don’t become active until triggered by negative life events
c. content specific
Content-specific
different types of beliefs are considered to be related to different kinds of abnormal behaviour
infromation-processing biases and intermediate beliefs
a. Selective attention and enhanced memory for info that’s schema-consistent
b. Persistent “if-then” statements
c. All or nothing thinking
d. Inaccurate causal attributions
automatic thoughts
people who experience psychopathology have a greater # of neg and threat related automatic thougths
socio-cultural influences
role that society and close others play in the etiology and maintenance of psychiatric disorders
stigma
Plays a role in the maintenance
One of the largest barriers to people seeking treatment
1/5 Canadians have mental health issues – 1/3 seek help
lebeling theory
a person being identified as having a mental illness results in other people perceiving them
as dysfunctional and different.
what does the labelling theory perceive
results in the person being treated disadvantageously and disrespectfully
public vs self stigma
Being aware that there’s a negative perception about mental illness doesn’t alter health-seeking
behaviours
The internalization of these perceptions (self-stigma) hinders help-seeking
social support
Helps prevent and reduce intensity of psychological problems
Associated with decreased psychiatric symptoms
quality over quantity
absence of social support is
the causal chain leading to dysfunction
gender
Many disorders are more prevalent in women and vice versa
Personality disorders – dependent personality or antisocial personality – may be an exaggeration of gender
roles
prejudice and lack of opportunity
stress in minority and underprivileged populations
resentment in race and poverty
generation fo behaviours that are viewed by others as antisocial or dysfunctional
professionals from priviledged classes are more inclined to
apply denigrating diagnoses to patients from lower classes
integrative theories
integrate biological and environmental factors
systems theory
the whole is more than the sum of its parts
causation is the result of
multiple factors interacting
its bidirectional process
diathesis-stress perspective
predisposition to developing a disorder (diathesis) interacts with the experience of stress
to cause mental disorders
The diathesis can be
biological or psychological or social
a diathesis will not produce a disorder without
the trigger of some stress
a diathesis allows the possibility that people may develop disorders through
the influence of different diatheses and
different stressors
biosychosocial methodel
biological, psychological and social factors
Brain functions have been found to influence and to be influenced by
psychological and social processes; This relationship is reciprocal
early maladaptive schemas
- Disconnection and rejection
- Impaired autonomy and performance
- Impaired limits
- Other directedness
- Over-vigilance and inhibition
