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Quants Flashcards

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1
Q

First Quant textbook released in 1938

A

Experimental Psych - Robert Session

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2
Q

Purpose of experiment?

A

To demonstrate causality

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3
Q

3 requirements for causality?

A
  1. Temporal Precedence
  2. correlation
  3. No confounds
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4
Q

Early psych research was linked to what kind of science?

A

hardline sciences, more quantitative, focused on proving

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5
Q

Best friend in research

A

Control

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6
Q

Three key features of an experiment

A

E.C.M

Establish IVs - create conditions that are under control of researcher
Controlling Ext Vrs - avoid confounding
Measuring dep vars - must be precisely defined

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7
Q

Minimum no. of levels for IVs?

A

2

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8
Q

List 4 categories of IVs

A
  1. Manipulated or subject Vs
  2. Situational
  3. Task
  4. Instructional
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9
Q

What do we need to control?

A

EVERYTHING that is not of interest to us

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10
Q

How could one control for observer expectancy?

A

A double blind study

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11
Q

What is a vital element in establishing credibility in an experiment

A

The operational definitions

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12
Q

Should op defs be based on context, culture, times etc?

A

Yes

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13
Q

List 4 types of validity in experimental research

A

(ICES)

  1. Internal
  2. Construct
  3. External
  4. Statistical conclusion
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14
Q

Components of Stat conc val? (4 points)

A
  • Correct analysis, no violation of assumptions
  • report all analyses
  • don’t fish for any and all sig analysis result
  • use reliable measures (so you can find effects)
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15
Q

Two questions surrounded construct validity?

A
  1. Do your test measure what it claims to?
  2. Are your operational definitions adequate?
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16
Q

Central issue around external validity

A

GENERALIZABILITY
- across pops
- across environments
- across time

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17
Q

Definition of Internal validity

A

The degree to which a study is methodologically sounds and confound free

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18
Q

General process of exp studies?

A

OXO

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19
Q

Threats to Internal Validity

A

HMTSIAR

HOW MANY TEA SPOONS IN A REACTOR

(History, Maturation, Testing, Selection Bias, Instrumentation, Attrition, Regression to the mean)

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20
Q

History

A

what happens between the pre- and post-test that is outside of the study (war, protest, life change, retrenchment)

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21
Q

Maturation

A

Improvement or decline in abilities due to age/maturation (mostly bio/physiological, and mostly relevant to young/old pops)

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22
Q

Testing (threats to Int Val)
And possible solution

A

process of pre-test (rather than intervention) that affects change seen in post-test. (learning skills, gaining insight into own lives, asking big questions of their own life etc)

Distinction between testing and history/maturation is that is was the process of the pre-test which stimulated the change.

Possible sol: use a distractor

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23
Q

Instrumentation (threats to int val)

A

Lack of reliability and poor op defs introduce confounds (decrease int val)
Sol: Have good Rel and Op Defs

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24
Q

Selection bias (threats to IV)
And possible solution?

A

Sub-con selection of people who may respond better.
Sol: RA (needs LS)

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25
Q

Reg to mean (threats to Int Val)
And possible solution:

A

V high/low scores in pre-test and normal scores in post-test (eg nervous in pre-test and calm in post). Seems like intervention is effective or not when it’s the opposite.
Sol: LS

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26
Q

How could one protect against history?

A

Pre- and post-test in a single sitting. Or, try collect data on what happened to participants between tests.

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27
Q

Name two basic experimental research designs and briefly explain them and one problem with each

A
  1. Between subjects - each P takes part in only one condition of research. Problem: Creating equivalent groups
  2. Within-subjects (repeated measures) - each P in all conditions of research. Problem: sequencing effect (having been in one condition may affect behav in other condition
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28
Q

When should one use between subject designs (2 marks)

A
  • When IV is a Subject variable (eg intro/extrovert). things researcher cannot control
  • When sequencing effect prevent within-subject design (eg given coping skills one can’t unlearn)
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29
Q

What is needed for groups in between-subject designs, and list two ways to make the groups so

A

Equivalence.
1. Random assignment
2. Matching

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30
Q

Benefits of random assignment in Between-subjects design experiments (4 points)

A

Helps nullify:
- Bias selection
- History
- Maturation (control group controls for this)
- Implementation

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31
Q

Discuss matching in creating equivalent groups in between-subjects design (4 points)

A
  • try make sure everyone is equal on things that are linked to DV (eg get people with brain lesions and group them according to what lesions affect)
  • Not as good as RA
  • not a true exp with matching
  • useful when only a few Ps are available (no RA possible)
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32
Q

Advantages of within-subjects/repeated measures designs (3 points)

A
  • Need fewer people
  • no worries about equivalent groups
  • decrease error variance (no indi diffs affecting results)
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33
Q

Problems with within-subjects/repeated measures designs (3 marks)

A
  • Carry-over effects (does it matter if condition A or B comes first?)
  • fatigue effects
  • practice effects
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34
Q

Explain factor vs level

A

Factor = the IV
Level = number of “states” of that variable you’re testing

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35
Q

Indep groups, 1-factor

groups of cats in 2 visual environments, horizontal vs vertical stripes. Factor and Level?

A

Factor = vis enviro
Level = vertical or horizontal stripes

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36
Q

Matched groups, 1 factor

Effect of sleep dep on influence of misleading questions? Factors and Levels

A

Factor = sleep deprivation
Level = no. of hours of sleep dep

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37
Q

Nonequivalent groups, 1 factor

Are gifted children good at emotional problem solving compared with average IQ kids.
(non-eq groups as Ps can’t be randomly assigned)
Factors and Levels?

A

Factor = IQ
Levels = gifted or average IQ

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38
Q

Within subjects, 1 factor

Will kids shift balance to moving stimuli as if their balance has shifted?
Factors and Levels?

A

Factor = visual stimuli
Levels = Forwards and backwards

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39
Q

Between-subjects, multilevel designs

Effect of caff on reaction time (varying levels of caffeine exposure)
* NB to looks at enough levels, as relationship may not be linear
Factor and level?

A

Factor = Caffeine
Level = amount of caffeine

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40
Q

2 factor study with 3 levels is called a…. and has … conditions

A

3x2 factorial design and has 6 conditions

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41
Q

main vs int effect and eg
(multifactorial designs)

A

Main: effect of one IV on DV
eg: caffeine affects word finding ability

Interaction effect: does effect of one IV depend on level of another IV?
eg: effect of caffeine on word finding ability is dependent on level of sleep deprivation

42
Q

In multifactorial design:
For main effects, look for significant differences in the….

For interaction effects, look for significant differences between the…

A

…overall averages

…cells of a given row/column

43
Q

In multifactorial design, a condition is a…

A

…subgroup created by different factors (eg males with high anx)

44
Q

Can factors in a multifactorial design study be both 1 between-subjects and 1 within-subjects?

A

Yes.
Eg, spider approaching or retreating (one factor, within-subjects) AND self-efficacy hi or low (between subjects)

45
Q

as you number of conditions go up so do your….

A

number of required participants

46
Q

The two broad disciplines of scientific psych?

A
  1. Correlational psych - concerned with indi differences and relationship between naturally occuring variables
  2. experimental psych - no interested in indi diffs, but minimizing them for generalizability’s sake
47
Q

Correlation vs regression?

A

Correlation = Identifies association between two variables
Regression = used to make predictions when strong correlations exist (Y=a+bx)

48
Q

Problems with correlational research and causality (2 marks)

A
  1. Directionality (temporal prec)
  2. Third variables (confounds)
49
Q

Solution to directionality problem in correlational research

A

Cross-lagging - for studies over time (reports on strength and relation)

50
Q

Can one infer the design from statistics?

A

No

51
Q

Why do we do correlational research despite short comings? (3 marks)

A
  1. Practicality (some variables can’t be randomly assigned - gender, age etc)(but can find ideal participants)
  2. Some R is conducted with prediction in mind
  3. Ethical grounds (can’t randomly assign brain damage)
52
Q

4 places where correlational research is used

A
  1. Psych testing
  2. Research in Personality and Abnormal Psych
  3. Studying nature vs nurture controversy
  4. Any cross-sectional study
53
Q

Most correlational research takes place where?

A

Outside the lab - quasi exps and programmer evaluation.

54
Q

Correlational R used when …. are not possible

A

experimental procedures

55
Q

A true experiment has….(2 marks)

A
  1. random assignment
  2. more than one condition
56
Q

Quasi-experiments are those in which participants…..

A

cannot be randomly assigned

57
Q

Main advantage of quasi-experiments (1 mark)

A

Increased external advantage (done in real word)

58
Q

Two types of quasi-experimental designs?

A
  1. Nonequivalent control group designs
  2. Interrupted time series designs
59
Q

When does one use a nonequivalent control group design?

A

When one cannot properly randomly assign

60
Q

Interrupted time series allows for…and is used when

A

the evaluation of trends….there is no other way to find the answers

61
Q

Should one take multiple observations before and after the interruption in an interrupted time series design

A

Yes - observations on either side of the interruption may be part of a bigger trend

62
Q

Cannot have RA in a quasi experiment but one can have a….

A

..nonequivalent control group (town in drunk driving example)

63
Q

Where are small N designs most useful?

A

Clinical populations

64
Q

Why use a small N design?

A
  • subjects are hard to find (rare diseases etc)
65
Q

Requirements in a small N design (3 marks)

A
  • target behavior operationally defined and easily measurable
    -establish a baseline of responding to intervention
    -introduce treatment and keep on monitoring
66
Q

Small N studies must be ….. as they can form the base/pilot for future research

A

reproduceable/replicable

67
Q

Depending on how much control the R’r has over IV, small N studies can be…

A

quasi-exps

68
Q

Two types of small N designs:

A
  1. Withdrawal (A-B; A-B-A; A-B-A-B max)
  2. Multiple baseline design
69
Q

When are multiple baseline designs used?

A

When withdrawal studies aren’t possible (intervention not removable, or unethical to remove)

70
Q

In a multiple baseline design, introduce intervention to participants at same time?

A

No, at different stages

71
Q

Evaluating small N designs:

External validity?
Stat significance?
Interactions?
Studies that don’t use frequency?

A

Ext val generally low
No stat sig due to low numbers
Not much info in interactions from small N’s
Need studies that use frequencies

72
Q

Name 2 NB aspects of surveys

A
  1. Sampling
  2. Structuring the questions
73
Q

Probability sampling aspects: (3 points)

A
  • Each person has an equal chance o being chosen for sample
  • Learn something specific about an identified group of indis (generalise back to pop)
  • Representative sample needed
74
Q

Three types of random sampling and explanation

A
  1. Simple random sampling - good, except when wanting to study systematic features of pop or pop is very large (might not get fair rep of all departments in uct etc)
  2. Cluster sampling - Do simple random sampling within each cluster to ensure equal rep
  3. Stratified sampling - looking at a particular characteristic, but cluster does not exist. Simple R Sampling from each strata
75
Q

Non-prob samplin: When to use it? (1 point)

A

When generalizability is not the goal, but the relationship between the two variables is

76
Q

Non-prob sampling: two types

A
  1. Convenience sampling - take whoever responds to request and who meets general requirements
  2. Purposive - very specific seeking of Ps
77
Q

Survey methods - 3 types

A
  1. Interview
  2. Written surveys
  3. Phone surveys
78
Q

Advantages of interviews (surveys)

A
  • comprehensive, lots of data
  • few problems with unclear info/missing data
79
Q

Disadvantages of interviews (surveys) (4 points)

A
  • People refusing to be interviewed
  • cost, time, logistics (travel, transcription etc)
  • interviewer bias (cross-race bias etc)
  • Hard to standardize if using R assistants.
80
Q

Written surveys use either… or …. questions, and sometimes….

A

open, closer, likert scales
Administration was challenging before internet

81
Q

Phone surveys disadvantages: (2 points)

A
  • Excludes pop without phones
  • non-response rate can be high
82
Q

Things to be cautious of in surveys: (4 points

A
  • Sampling frame bias
  • Social desirability bias
  • Survey too long
  • Bad questions (leading/2-part)
83
Q

4 Types of observational research

A
  1. Case studies
  2. Naturalistic observation
  3. Participant observation
  4. Archival research
84
Q

Two approaches held in tension in Case Study research, and their focus

A
  1. Ideographic (focus on individual)
  2. Nomothetic (focus on group)
85
Q

Which type of observational research allows for study of rare phenomena

A

Case studies

86
Q

Which type of observational research provides a source for developing ideas, hypotheses and therapy techniques

A

Case studies

87
Q

Which type of observational research provides very persuasive data but have low generalizability

A

case studies

88
Q

limitations of case studies (2 points)

A
  • rely on anecdotal info, this makes them vulnerable to bias presentation
  • low generalizability
89
Q

Which mode of observational research attempts to study normal behaviors of people or animals in their environment

A

Naturalistic observation
(and participants observation, but here the researcher joins the group being observed)

90
Q

Shortcomings of Observational research (3 marks)

A
  • no control group; no causality can be drawn
  • observer bias; preconceived ideas shape interpretations of people’s behavior
  • subject reactivity (behave differently when their observed)
91
Q

Type of observational research that draws from data ranging from public records (census data, court records) to personal info (credit rating, diaries etc)

A

Archival research

92
Q

Advantages of Archival research (3 points)

A
  • unlimited info available
  • can mix with lab research (increasing external val)
  • no subject reactivity
93
Q

Disadvantages of archival research (2 points)

A
  • info may be missing or not representative
  • experimenter bias (selecting only records that support one’s hypothesis)
94
Q

Which study and report began the formalization of ethics

A
  • The Tuskegee syphilis study
  • The Belmont report
95
Q

Name three fundamental principles to ethics

A
  1. Beneficence (maximise benefits and minimise risks)
  2. Autonomy (people decide whether or not to participate in research)(Deception makes this tricky - just make sure there’s no hard to participants and they are debriefed after participation)
  3. Justice (fairness - who to include in the study, who bears the risk in the research, who reaps the reward from the research)
96
Q

Boards and codes of ethics (3)

A
  • Institutional review board (IRB)
  • The APA ethics code
  • The Helsinki declaration of the World Medical Association
97
Q

Three components of informed consent

A
  • Knowledge (understand nature of exp, alternative available, risks and benefits)
  • Volition (provide consent free from constraint of duress - may revoke at any time)(Don’t offer large cash incentive in low SES comm - no one will be able to say no)
  • Competence (indi is able to make well-reasoned decisions and give meaningful consent)

*don’t confuse these with fundamental principles to ethics

98
Q

3 other ethical issues in R

A
  • Fraud (do not make up data)
  • Allocation of credit (do not plagiarize)
  • Sharing of materials and data (share materials and data so people can run different analyses)
99
Q

Components of consent form

A
  • Overview
  • Procedures
  • Risks
  • Benefits
  • Cost/economic considerations
  • Confidentiality
  • Alternative treatments
  • Voluntary participation
  • Questions and further info
  • Signature lines
100
Q

What is counter-balancing?

A

Attempt to mitigate sequencing effects in a repeated measures study - one half does A then B, other half does B then A

101
Q
A

PSYCHOLOGY (9 decks)

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