quantitive research - key concepts

Question 1

What determines the conclusions we can draw from research?

Answer 1

The conclusions depend on how the knowledge was generated

Question 2

What should we evaluate in any research study we plan or read?

Answer 2

We need to know:

• Whether the study design, conduct, and analysis answer the research questions without bias (internal validity).
• To what extent we can generalize the findings to other contexts (external validity).

Question 3

What is internal validity in research?

Answer 3

Internal validity refers to whether the study design, conduct, and analysis answer the research questions without bias.

Question 4

What is external validity in research?

Answer 4

External validity refers to the extent to which the research findings can be generalized to other contexts.

Question 5

What does the process of evaluating research depend on?

Answer 5

The process depends on the research design.

Question 6

What does a research question specify?

Answer 6

A research question specifies the topic to be studied in an empirically testable way.

Question 7

What are the four objectives of science (Rooney et al., 2009) that research questions are based upon?

Answer 7

The four objectives are:

• To describe
• To explain
• To predict
• To control

Question 8

What is an example of a research question that aims to describe?

Answer 8

“What is the nature of statistics anxiety among university students?”

Question 9

What makes a good research question?

Answer 9

A good research question should be:
* Empirically testable
* Interesting and useful
* Feasible

Question 10

What does it mean for a research question to be “empirically testable”?

Answer 10

It means the question can be expressed in terms of a single construct or a relationship between constructs.

Question 11

Why should a research question be interesting and useful?

Answer 11

The question should have theoretical or applied importance.

Question 12

What does it mean for a research question to be feasible?

Answer 12

It means the research can be carried out with the available resources and time.

Question 13

What is the first step in the quantitative research process?

Answer 13

Step 1 is to find a topic.

Question 14

What is the second step in the quantitative research process?

Answer 14

Step 2 is to generate the research question.

Question 15

What is a research hypothesis?

Answer 15

A research hypothesis is a statement about an expected relationship between variables that is clear, specific, and testable.

Question 16

What is a variable in the context of a research hypothesis?

Answer 16

A variable is an operationalization of a construct

Question 17

What are predictor and outcome variables?

Answer 17

• Predictor variables are those that predict an outcome (often independent variables in experimental research).
• Outcome variables are affected by predictors (often dependent variables).

Question 18

What is an example of predictor and outcome variables in a hypothesis?

Answer 18

• Predictor: Statistics anxiety
• Outcome: Confidence in a statistics exam

Question 19

What distinguishes causal and associative hypotheses?

Answer 19

Causal hypotheses claim that the predictor has an effect on the outcome.
Associative hypotheses only suggest that the predictor and outcome are related, without implying cause and effect.

Question 20

How can we infer causation in research?

Answer 20

Causation can only be inferred from experimental research.

Question 21

What is a directional hypothesis?

Answer 21

A directional (one-tailed) hypothesis specifies the expected direction of the relationship between variables, based on prior evidence.

Question 22

What is a non-directional hypothesis?

Answer 22

A non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis states that there will be a relationship between variables, but does not specify the direction.

Question 23

What is operationalization in research?

Answer 23

Operationalization is the process of defining a variable in measurable terms so it can be studied empirically

Question 24

Why do psychological constructs need to be operationalized?

Answer 24

Psychological constructs, such as anxiety or motivation, cannot be directly observed, so they must be measured through operational definitions.

Question 25

What are the two common ways to operationalize statistics anxiety?

Answer 25

• Physiological measures (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure)
• Self-report scales (e.g., questionnaires asking participants to rate their anxiety)

Question 26

What are psychological measures?

Answer 26

Psychological measures are lists of items (statements) to which participants must score themselves (e.g., Likert scales).

Question 27

What are some advantages and disadvantages of psychological measures?

Answer 27

• Advantages: Readily available, cheap, easy to administer, and analyze.
• Disadvantages: Difficult to maintain strong validity and reliability.

Question 28

What is validity in research?

Answer 28

Validity refers to the degree to which evidence and theory support the interpretations of test scores for the proposed use of tests.

Question 29

What are the common types of validity?

Answer 29

• Construct validity
• Criterion validity
• Content validity
• Face validity

Question 30

What is reliability in research?

Answer 30

Reliability is the consistency of a measure.

Question 31

What are the types of reliability?

Answer 31

• Internal reliability – consistency of items within a scale.
• Test-retest reliability – consistency over time.
• Inter-rater reliability – consistency between raters.

Question 32

Why should you not create a measurement tool on-the-fly?

Answer 32

You should use well-established measures, or rigorously develop and test new ones, to ensure validity and reliability.

Question 33

What are the four levels of measurement in research?

Answer 33

• Nominal/Categorical
• Ordinal
• Interval
• Ratio

Question 34

What is nominal measurement?

Answer 34

Nominal measurement categorizes data into distinct groups without any order (e.g., eye color, occupation).

Question 35

What is ordinal measurement?

Answer 35

Ordinal measurement ranks data in a meaningful order, but without knowing the exact difference between ranks (e.g., 1st, 2nd, 3rd place in a race).

Question 36

What is interval measurement?

Answer 36

Interval measurement has equal intervals between data points but no true zero point (e.g., temperature in Celsius).

Question 37

What is ratio measurement?

Answer 37

Ratio measurement has equal intervals and an absolute zero point (e.g., height, weight, reaction time).

Question 38

What are the two types of data in statistical analysis?

Answer 38

• Continuous – No fixed range of values (e.g., height, weight).
• Discrete – Fixed range of values (e.g., number of children).
• Categorical – Nominal data (e.g., gender, race).

Question 39

What makes a good quantitative study?

Answer 39

A good quantitative study should have:

• An empirically-testable, interesting, and feasible research question
• A clear, specific, evidence-based hypothesis
• Appropriate operationalization of constructs
• Valid and reliable measures