quantitive research - key concepts Flashcards
What determines the conclusions we can draw from research?
The conclusions depend on how the knowledge was generated
What should we evaluate in any research study we plan or read?
We need to know:
- Whether the study design, conduct, and analysis answer the research questions without bias (internal validity).
- To what extent we can generalize the findings to other contexts (external validity).
What is internal validity in research?
Internal validity refers to whether the study design, conduct, and analysis answer the research questions without bias.
What is external validity in research?
External validity refers to the extent to which the research findings can be generalized to other contexts.
What does the process of evaluating research depend on?
The process depends on the research design.
What does a research question specify?
A research question specifies the topic to be studied in an empirically testable way.
What are the four objectives of science (Rooney et al., 2009) that research questions are based upon?
The four objectives are:
- To describe
- To explain
- To predict
- To control
What is an example of a research question that aims to describe?
“What is the nature of statistics anxiety among university students?”
What makes a good research question?
A good research question should be:
* Empirically testable
* Interesting and useful
* Feasible
What does it mean for a research question to be “empirically testable”?
It means the question can be expressed in terms of a single construct or a relationship between constructs.
Why should a research question be interesting and useful?
The question should have theoretical or applied importance.
What does it mean for a research question to be feasible?
It means the research can be carried out with the available resources and time.
What is the first step in the quantitative research process?
Step 1 is to find a topic.
What is the second step in the quantitative research process?
Step 2 is to generate the research question.
What is a research hypothesis?
A research hypothesis is a statement about an expected relationship between variables that is clear, specific, and testable.
What is a variable in the context of a research hypothesis?
A variable is an operationalization of a construct
What are predictor and outcome variables?
- Predictor variables are those that predict an outcome (often independent variables in experimental research).
- Outcome variables are affected by predictors (often dependent variables).
What is an example of predictor and outcome variables in a hypothesis?
- Predictor: Statistics anxiety
- Outcome: Confidence in a statistics exam
What distinguishes causal and associative hypotheses?
Causal hypotheses claim that the predictor has an effect on the outcome.
Associative hypotheses only suggest that the predictor and outcome are related, without implying cause and effect.
How can we infer causation in research?
Causation can only be inferred from experimental research.
What is a directional hypothesis?
A directional (one-tailed) hypothesis specifies the expected direction of the relationship between variables, based on prior evidence.
What is a non-directional hypothesis?
A non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis states that there will be a relationship between variables, but does not specify the direction.
What is operationalization in research?
Operationalization is the process of defining a variable in measurable terms so it can be studied empirically
Why do psychological constructs need to be operationalized?
Psychological constructs, such as anxiety or motivation, cannot be directly observed, so they must be measured through operational definitions.
What are the two common ways to operationalize statistics anxiety?
- Physiological measures (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure)
- Self-report scales (e.g., questionnaires asking participants to rate their anxiety)
What are psychological measures?
Psychological measures are lists of items (statements) to which participants must score themselves (e.g., Likert scales).
What are some advantages and disadvantages of psychological measures?
- Advantages: Readily available, cheap, easy to administer, and analyze.
- Disadvantages: Difficult to maintain strong validity and reliability.
What is validity in research?
Validity refers to the degree to which evidence and theory support the interpretations of test scores for the proposed use of tests.
What are the common types of validity?
- Construct validity
- Criterion validity
- Content validity
- Face validity
What is reliability in research?
Reliability is the consistency of a measure.
What are the types of reliability?
- Internal reliability – consistency of items within a scale.
- Test-retest reliability – consistency over time.
- Inter-rater reliability – consistency between raters.
Why should you not create a measurement tool on-the-fly?
You should use well-established measures, or rigorously develop and test new ones, to ensure validity and reliability.
What are the four levels of measurement in research?
- Nominal/Categorical
- Ordinal
- Interval
- Ratio
What is nominal measurement?
Nominal measurement categorizes data into distinct groups without any order (e.g., eye color, occupation).
What is ordinal measurement?
Ordinal measurement ranks data in a meaningful order, but without knowing the exact difference between ranks (e.g., 1st, 2nd, 3rd place in a race).
What is interval measurement?
Interval measurement has equal intervals between data points but no true zero point (e.g., temperature in Celsius).
What is ratio measurement?
Ratio measurement has equal intervals and an absolute zero point (e.g., height, weight, reaction time).
What are the two types of data in statistical analysis?
- Continuous – No fixed range of values (e.g., height, weight).
- Discrete – Fixed range of values (e.g., number of children).
- Categorical – Nominal data (e.g., gender, race).
What makes a good quantitative study?
A good quantitative study should have:
- An empirically-testable, interesting, and feasible research question
- A clear, specific, evidence-based hypothesis
- Appropriate operationalization of constructs
- Valid and reliable measures
