Qualitative Methods ( 5,8,17,20) Flashcards
What is Phenomenology?
The meaning of a person’s life
A persons reality is determined by their interpretation of their world
Their whole life aspect not just the condition
In depth conversation
Semi structured interviews
Philosophies of phenomenlogy
This apporach allows researchers to focus on a ‘whole’ person in other words all aspects of the participants lives
It is based on the assumption that individuals encounter their experiences with and through others and that they play an active role in shaping their experiences
A persons experience are influenced by the context in which they occur.
What are the two types of phenomenlogy?
Descriptive and Interpretive.
The differences between these approaches are determined by their theoretical underpinnings
Descriptive phenomenology
Descriptive phenomenology is grounded in the ideology of hsserl which focuses on the concept of the ‘life world’ or ‘lived experiences’. The aim is to describe an individuals preception or account of their experiences
This approach does not require the researcher to have prior knowlegde or experience of the phenomena ( an observational fact or event) under investigation
What is bracketing?
‘Bracket’ prior knowlegde or assumptions beliefs and prejudice. This is reffered to as ‘bracketing’ . This is usually carried out before the study by reflecting on what they know, believe and assume on the topic.
Bracketing assists data collection and analysis by increasing the likelihood that report findings describe participants experience and perceptions/
Phenomenological research
Phenomenological research follows the principles of qualitive research - participant recuritment, data collection and data analysis
Phenomenological research: Sampling
A sample between 5-25 participants is usually sufficient.
When picking a sample the researcher should consider:
The aims and objectives of the study
The accessibility and avaliability of potential participants
The timeframe avaliable
The need to ensure trustworthiness
Data saturation
When data collection and data analysis do not reveal any new findings so the recruitment of further participants is deemed unneccessary
Interpretative phenomenological study
An interpretative study means using prior knowledge and professional experiences to explore the mother’s experiences of postnatal depression
Phenomenological research: Data collection
Common form of data collection in phenomenological study is semi structured interviews during when participants are able to reflect upon their experiences and feelings
Engaged and in depth conversations
Narrative accounts are generated which provide an accurate portrayal as possible of participants lived experiences
Essential that participants tell their stories without interruption
Other forms of data collection include diares and case studies
Phenomenological research: Data analysis
Interviews are usually audio recorded to facilitate transcription and data analysis.
The recording should be then transcribed verbatim ( word for word) into a word processing document
Qualitative data analysis software - N’Vivo
Common qualtitive data analysis used is thematic analysis - where section of the data are coded ainto broad themes each of which usually contain a number of sub themes. This can cluminate in the development of a theory
E.g phenomenological research
A phenomenological study of carers experiences of looking after an adult relative with disability could lead to the development of the theory that they feel abandoned by the health and social care workers
Phenomenological research: Ethical issues
General research governance issues such as informed consent, participant confidentiality and the aprovals processes.
Researcher shoud have strategies in place before the study begins to deal with any sensitive issues and this includes the provision on going support for participants and researchers
Participants are given a debriefing sheet at the end of the interview identifying possible support that they can access if they want
The phenomenological approach provides particiants with a level control over they disclose.
Participants may reveal more than they intended. Ethical dilemma raised.
What do ethnographers explore?
Accepted behaviours
Expectations about behaviours that are conveyed either overtly or covertly to those who join the group
The group’s social traditions, values, beliefs, opinions and ideas
The system of communication which may include signs, slangs, gestures, abberivations, terminology and language
The groups artefacts or symbols that represents the group
Ethnography
Ethnography focus on groups of people
Ethnography explores the setting or world in which individuals or groups of people come together whereby researchers explore the behaviours and beliefs of groups of people or individuals within a group
Whats the difference between Ethnography Macroethnography and Microethnography?
Macroethnography - studies involve large groups such as a whole community
Microethnography - studies that involve smaller groups more focused groups such as people working in a specific place of work
Ethnography Research: The setting and The Sample
The sample size is determined by the setting the study is taken place in
In accordance with principles of qualitative research
Non probaility samping is adopted and the specific strategy of convenience sampling ( non-probability sampling that involves the sample being drawn from that part of the population that is close to hand) is used.
Ethnography Research: Data collection and Data analysis
Common method of data used is observation. This is sometimes referred to collecting data ‘ in the field’
Strengths and weakness of observations
Strength: The research will be able to normal rather than contrived patterns of behaviour.
Strength: Enables the researcher to attain an ‘emic’ or an ‘insiders prespective’ of the groups behaviour
Weakness: Limitations : the possibility that participants change their behaviour because they are aware they are being observed
Ethical concerns : Observing participants without them knowing?
Difference between overt and covert observation
Overtly ( do know they are being watched) observation
covertly(don’t know they are being watched) oberservation
Aim of data analysis - observation
Is to explain group behaviours. Tacit knowledge is revealed , activities and behaviours are identified which the group have not previously discussed or openly acknowlegde
Ethnography Research: Ethical issues
withdraw part-way through the study
In this case all the data revolving that person is destroyed at the participants request.
May not happen in this type of study,as observation of a group with that participant has already occured. Potential participants should be aware of this before they sign consent form
The research ‘going naive’ = when they become so immensed in the group they become over familiar and either anticipate or filter out behaviours and activities. This may be done deliberately or unintentionally
To reduce this from happening - maintaining a reflective diary, periodically taking time out and regular discussion with their research supervisor
What is the grounded theory?
The theory that is developed is said to be ‘grounded’ in reality in other words the theory has its roots in the data that have been collected about the phenomena
Benefits of grounded theory
Grounded theory is an ideal method to use when no prior theory about the phenomena under investigation exists.
Appropriate method to use if the aim of the study is to gain a more detailed understanding of factors affecting the health of patients and clients
Can be used to develop models, frameworks and policies in midwifery
The grounded theory study begins with the recognition that greater insight to a phenomenon is required
Grounded Theory: Setting and Sample
Grounded theory participants are referred to as data sources
Non- probality sampling stratgies will be used through the study
Further participants will be recruited using theoretical sampling - this means the research will specficially recruit participants who they think will refine or challenge theory that is being developed
Theoretical sampling
Theoretical sampling - this means the research will specficially recruit participants who they think will refine or challenge theory that is being developed
Grounded theory data collection
A grounded theory is likely to generate large quantites of data in the form of transcript and field notes
Data collection methods include in-depth interviews, focus groups,diares, observation, semi-structured questionnaires, images.
Quantitative data may be also collected
Grounded theory - cyclical process
Research identify required characteristics in further participants, issues to explore with them and the type of data collection methods to use. This is described as being an iterative or cyclical process
The researcher compares the data that they have collected from different sources and looks for confirmation and contradictions, similarities and differences
Grounded theory - ethical issues
Researchers can barely predict at the start of the study which data sources or methods of data collection will be involved
Issues often relate data collection, methods e.g. interview and observation
Qualitative methods: Interviews
Phenomonolgy and grounded theory
Face to face, telephone or internet
Semi- structured or structured interviews this is known as the topic guide
Developing an interview schedule or topic guide
Starting point, what does the researcher want to know?
Easy way to develop questions for interview is by developing a mind map of the topic to help devise the questions
In qualitative studies: key open questions to trigger discussion
The topic guide should include possible probe or follow up questions, which researcher may used to explore issues
Topic guide
Opening question should be broad e.g. ‘’tell me about’’
The researcher develops a loose set of open questions and possible probes. Problematic - ethical committee
Last question on topic guide asks if the participants want to raise any other issues
What factors impact transcription of data recordings
Transcription is the 1st step of data analysis The researcher will have to decide who caries out transcription Time Cost Resources and skills avaliable Data security Maintaining confidentiality The nature of the recordings Potential impact on the transcriber Impact on the data analysis process
Risk of transcription
One the risks of partial transcription is that important or significant data may be overlooked
The researcher should decide when conventions should be used before the process commences e.g. should intonations and emotional expressions such as laughter be included and should the length of pauses be timed
Analysing the data
Qualitative researchers also endeavour to determine individual interpretations of phenomena and the impact of the context
Qualtitaive data is an iterative process - this means the researcher engages in the conversation with the data in order to facilitate their understanding and interpretation
‘ standing in the shoes of the participant’
Qualitative methods can be seen as dilectical - the researcher is affected by the phenomena they seek to understand in turn affects the phenomena themselves
As consequences the researcher should reflect throughout the study on their preconceived ideas and the impact of these on their interpretation of the findings
The purpose of qualitative data analysis
The purpose of qualitative data analysis is to understand the meaning and to provide an accurate portrayal of that meaning for others
MAIN AIM OF QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
Is to make sense of the data and present the researchers interpretation without loosing essence of the data contrasting views. The richness and nuances within the data must be retained
More than one picture could be produced -idiosyncractic nature of qualitative research means that is likely that two researchers analysing the same data would generate similar but in some ways different findings
The principles of qualitative data analysis
Key features include:
Breaking down the data into manageable pieces
Reviewing and organising the data
Building the data into manageable portions so the findings can be reported
Qualitative data analysis
Qualitative data begins early in the study - irrespective of the specific research method used, the initial analysis is likely to be used to inform subsequent data colllection as the two process usually occur concurently
Challenges of qualitative data analysis
Choosing appropriate approach to use. Unlike quantitative data analysis there are no agreed ‘rules’ on how to processes should be undertaken
The researcher may face criticism particularly from pronents of quantitative research. They have to justify the approach they have taken and the counter the view that subjectivity and bias are the same thing
Qualitative data requires alot of thinking time, it can be lengthy, time consuming, costly
Methods of qualitative analysis
The most commonly used qualitative data analysis methods are thematic analysis, interpretative phenomenological analysis, conversation analysis, discourse analysis and content analysis.
Thematic analysis
Commonly used to analyse qualitative data
Text coded into broad or key themes ( or categories) and sub themes
Key principle of thematic analysis is the analysis of the data
Usually the researcher will have developed between 4-6 broad themes each of which may incorporate a number of sub themes
In this analysis the researcher must demonstrate that they have analysed the data rather than just describing it
Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA)
Analyse data commonly used in phenomneological studies
Researcher actively draws on their prior knowlegde and experiences interpreting data
IPA researchers usually print of the data. Annotations in the left hand margin identify codes whilst the researcher uses the right hand margin to make annotations about their analysis.
Eventually the annotations on the right hand side become themes and subthemes
Conversation analysis
Used to analyse natually occurring everday conversations between individuals rather than more formal interviews and focus groups.
Researcher only interested in what the participant says but also how they say it. The researcher will therefore analyse:
The overall structure of the dialogue Language and terminology used Intonations and emphasis Emotional expressions Pauses and gaps Repetition Echoing Turn talking The way in which new topics are introduced or terminated Interruptions and overlapping speech Metaphors and euphemisms used
Discourse analysis
Used interchangeably with conversation analysis
Incooperates elements of the conversation analysis but it aims to understand any communication between people
Analysis of written and non-verbal communication to capture data such as body posture, use of eye contact
Either videos or researcher or other team member makes detailed notes
Content analysis
Content analysis
Undertaken taking a qualitative or quantitative approach
Qualitative context analysis is another term for thematic analysis
Quantitative context analysis is sometimes referred to as template analysis.
Quantitative content analysis used a ‘top down’ approach
This means that a coding framework is devised before data analysis begins
The researcher decides in advance what they are going to look for in the data and develops a list of codes or catogeries
The researcher then reads through the data and counts the number of cases within the catogery
An advantage - different coders should obtain the same results so long as the codes are clear and unambigouous
Useful when analysing written material such as news or report
Which methods of qualitative data should i use?
Which methods of qualitative data should i use?
Consider the ‘top down’ approach or ‘bottom up’ approach
Should be determinded by the research question
Thematic analysis is commonly used
