Qualitative Flashcards
Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches (Fourth edition). SAGE.
(Creswell and Poth, 2018)
Narrative
Narrative research- “begins with experiences as expressed in lived and told stories of individuals”
Narrative and the context (social, cultural, familial, institutional, etc.)
Collects stories from individuals that occur in a specific place or situation, illuminate identities of individuals and how they see themselves
Often utilize chronology- told in order, like a story arc
May contain turning points
Kinds- biographical, autoethnogoraphy, life history, oral history
Kinds a research question- capturing detailed stories of single individual or small number
Spend significant time with individual, gather data in multiple ways
Restorying- analyzing process, reorganize into a particular framework
Collaborative approach
Challenges- Issues of power in relation to collaboration. Who owns the story? Competing narratives?
Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches (Fourth edition). SAGE.
(Creswell & Poth, 2018)
Phenomenological
Phenomenological - common meaning from several individuals, reduces individual experiences to their essence- What they experienced, how they experienced it
intentionality of consciousness- reality of an object if inextricably linked to consciousness of it
Types: hermeneutical- interpreting life in context; or transcendental or psychological - fresh perspective toward phenomenon, bracket expectations
Research questions- understand several individuals’ common experience of a particular phenomenon
In-depth and multiple interviews
clusters of meaning into themes and develop descriptions of the themes, goal is to find the “essence” by using composite descriptions
Challenges- bracketing is difficult, IPA different form (arguably not even phenomenological) that integrates participant’s sense of experience but also researchers’ understanding of how the person makes sense of their experience.
Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches (Fourth edition). SAGE.
(Creswell & Poth, 2018)
Grounded Theory
Grounded Theory- positivist underpinnings, theory development is grounded in data from participants who have experienced whatever process is being examined
Focuses on process, distinct steps to form the movement of developing theory
Data collection and analsysis are done simultaneously and iteratively, zig zag between gathering and analyzing
Can have a detailed coding process- open coding for major categories, followed by axial coding and identifying core phenomenon
Most systematic of 5 methods, most resembling quant or positivist frameworks
social constructivist grounded theory, integrates social construction process, and sees conclusions are suggestive incomplete and inconclusive
Research question- when theory is not available or not fitting with particular population, seeking to understand how individuals experience a process
Challenges- when saturation has occurred (discriminant sampling helps), not as flexible as other qual methods
Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches (Fourth edition). SAGE.
(Creswell & Poth 2018)
Ethnography
Ethnography- researcher is interested in describing and interpreting shared patterns of a culture-sharing group, origins in anthropology and sociology, fieldwork
Often uses participant observer (going native), becoming immersed over a long period of time
Sees through cultural lens although not the study of a culture- looking for patterns of social organization
Emic perspective, then analyzed through etic researcher perspective
Types- realist- more “objective” third person, dispassionate voice; critical- advocacy perspective, looking at systems of power, privilege, marginalization etc.
Research question- describe how a cultural group works
Challenges- needs understanding of cultural anthropology, base knowledge of culture, can become compromised from immersion
Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches (Fourth edition). SAGE.
(Creswell & Poth, 2018)
Case Study
Case study- in-depth, detailed data collection over time to find case themes within a bounded systems (bounded by time, place, etc.)
Has a long history of use, resepcted method of inquiry
Could be intrinsic case (illustrates a unique case) or instrumental case (help understand a specific issue or concern)
Collective case study- several in-depth cases and patterns can be analyzed across cases
Reluctant to generalize from one case to another, too many differences
Research question- clearly identifiable case, looking for in-depth understanding of one case
Extensive data collection that utilizes multiple sources
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
(Braun & Clarke, 2006)
Thematic analysis is theoretically flexible and accessible method of analysis
thematizing meanings- core to TA and shared skill across qual analysis
Compatible with essentialist and contructioninst paradigms
critique is “anything goes” mentality for analysis
Authors argue against passive “themes emerged” language, for active research process
TA can be essentialist or realist (reports experiences, meanings and reality of participants) or constructionist (ways in which events, realities, meanings, experiences are the effects of a range of discourses operating within society)
TA is theoretically flexible, but theoretical position should be made clear
Theme- captures something important about the data in relation to the research question and reflects some level of patterned response within the data set
Analysis could intent to provide a rich thematic description of the entire data set (useful when views on topic are not known, under-researched area)
Or could provide more detailed and nuanced account of one or a few themes in data (specific question of interest)
Inductive TA- bottom-up, data-driven, not tied to particular theory, but data are not coded in an epistemological vacuum
theoretical TA- driven by particular analytic interest in the area, tends to provide less rich description of data, more details analysis of particular aspect of the data
Decide semantic or latent
semantic- explicit surface meaning, describe and then later summarize and interpret often relating to previous literature
latent- identify and examine underlying ideas, assumptions, conceptualizations; development of themes themselves involves interpretative work
Epistemology:
Essentialist/realist- can theorize motivations, experience, and meaning because unidirectional relationship is assumed between meaning and experience and language
Constructionist- meaning and experience are socially produced and reproduced, seeks to theorize the socio-cultural contexts, and structural conditions that enable individual accounts provided
Advantages: flexible, easy method to learn, accessible to researchers with little qual experience, results are generally accessible, useful for participatory research, can summarize key features of a large body of data “thick description” of data set, can highlight similarities and differences, generates unanticipated insights, allows for social and psychological interpretation, useful for informing policy development.
Phases 6
- familiarizing yourself with data- transcribe, read and re-read, note initial ideas
- generating initial codes- coding interesting features in systematic fashion across entire set, collating data relevant to each code
- searching for themes- collating codes into potential themes, gathering all data relevant to each potential theme
- Reviewing themes- checking the themes work in relation to coded extracts, and the entire data set, generating a thematic map of the analysis
- defining and naming themes- ongoing analsysi to refine the specifics of each theme and overall story analysis tells; generating clear definitions and names for each theme
- producing the report- final analysis opportunity. selection of vivid extract examples, final analysis of selected extracts, relate back to analysis of the research question and literature, produce scholarly report
Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches (Fourth edition). SAGE.
(Creswell & Poth, 2018)
Ch 8 Data Analysis - Phenomenology
Describe personal experiences with phenomenon for purposes of bracketing
Develop list of significant statements using horizontalization to consider all equally
group the significant statements into broader meaning units (themes)
create a description of “what” participants experienced in relation to phenomenon as well as “how” the experience happened
write a composite description of the phenomenon including what and how
Requires a phenomenological question under research
Data must have experiential quality to understand essence
focus on simplification of ideas and description of the structure of the lived experience
Phenomenological reflection- Process involves holistic reading of entire text, selective reading looking for statements/phrases, and examining every sentence in a line-by-line approach.
Elo, S., Kääriäinen, M., Kanste, O., Pölkki, T., Utriainen, K., & Kyngäs, H. (2014). Qualitative content analysis: A focus on trustworthiness. SAGE Open, 4(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014522633
Elo et al., 2014
Content analysis looking at trustworthiness in qual research
content analysis- data can be reduced to concepts that describe phenomenon by creating categories (conceptual map)
important to report how results (like a conceptual map or other abstactions) were created
3 phases of content analysis process: preparation, organization, reporting results
trustworthiness- in some ways comes from positivist understanding of research, but addressed in qual as well
- supports the argument that findings are worth paying attention to
Lincoln and Guba 1985 note 5 areas: credibility, dependability, conformability, and trasnferability, later added authenticity
Credibility- those participating in research are described accurately, focus of the study, how well the data address the intended focus
- value of dialogue in co-researchers
Dependability- stability of data over time and under different conditions
- state principles and criteria used to select participants and main characteristics to address transferability and dependability of findings
- can reader easily follow the decision trail to findings
- vividly report findings include faithful, artful descriptions that highlight salient themes
Conformability- objectivity, potential for congruence between two or more people about data’s accuracy
- self-awareness is essential, critically assess own actions
- describe how concepts or categories created
- use of quotations to depict findings accurately represented by the data
Transferability- potential for extrapolation, generalized to another setting or group
- authors offer suggestions regarding this in written report, but up to reader to determine
Authenticity- degree to which researchers show a range of realities, fairly and faithfully
semistructured questions- be careful not to steer answers
Critical reference group- a pilot group in PAR
trial coding- research team, individuals try out codes, compare, and resolve differences
Saturation- when no new themes emerge, no number, authors recommend preliminary coding to help recognize saturation
Meaning unit- could be word, sentence, page, etc., recommend fully describe the meaning unit when reporting analysis process
high inter-coder reliability needed in deductive CA; in inductive one researcher is responsible for analysis and group follows work and discuss divergent opinions
face validity- findings presented to people familiar with research area who evaluate results
double-coding- independently coding two-rounds should produce approximately same results, useful in deductive approach
Member checks- continuous process of presenting findings to participants for verification, but others argue against this stating it is not an established verification strategy
- study participants do not understand their own actions and motives, and researchers have responsibility to apply their critical understanding to the accounts
Difficult to describe the analysis process because in part depends on researcher insights or intuitive action
Helpful to provide a figure to depict results
Can be difficult to evaluate trustworthiness because there is insufficient description of the data analysis process
Thoroughly document method throughout process, be organized and systematic, increases all areas of trustworthiness
Stutey, D. M., Givens, J., Cureton, J. L., & Henderson, A. J. (2020). The Practice of Bridling: Maintaining Openness in Phenomenological Research. The Journal of Humanistic Counseling, 59(2), 144–156. https://doi.org/10.1002/johc.12135
(Stutey et al., 2020)
humanistic researchers using bridling
bracketing has been understood as recognizing and setting aside assumptions about a phenomenon, however authors argue this is not accurate, radically alters the original meaning
phenomenological reduction reveals interconnection of self and world, subject and object
meditative (waiting, listening, openness to mystery vs calculative (planning, investigating, computing) thinking practices
new approach to reduction via reflective practice that makes researcher more aware of the manner in which their consciousness is bound up with others/world
bridling allow researcher to practice meditative thinking and is an alternate (more true to essence) to bracketing
bridling illuminates the researcher and their intentional relationship with the phenomenon
reflect on preconceived ideas of the phenomenon, and instead of trying to resist preunderstandings, adopt an attitude of being “in resistance”, maintain openness
Steps to bridling: can’t be used too mechanistically or shifts into calculative thinking
- initial bridling statement- reflexive journaling before beginning study, write as much as possible about preunderstanding of the phenomenon, be honest and transparent, what they think they will learn
- record experiences throughout data collection process, after each interview to wonder, question, vent, laugh, etc.
- documenting thoughts after each allow for release of any feelings, especially for topics with personal element
- journaling during data analysis- prior to coding, read through transcript and then create summary in journal, as coding begin, refer back to initial notes in journal
- steps to gain more open perspective- peer review or audit trail, use of external perspectives to maintain openness
bridling requires researcher vulnerability
Tracy, 2010
eight key markers of quality in qualitative research including (a) worthy topic, (b) rich rigor, (c) sincerity, (d) credibility, (e) resonance, (f) significant contribution, (g) ethics, and (h) meaningful coherence
a. worthy topic: relevant, timely, significant, interesting
b. rich rigor- sufficient, abundant, appropriate and complex theoretical constructs, data and time in field, samples, contexts, data collection and analysis processes
c. Sincerity- self-reflexivity about subjective values, baises and inclinations of researchers, transparency about methods and challenges
d. credibility- thick description, concrete detail, explication of tacit (nontextual, hidden meaning) knowledge and showing rather than telling, triangulation or crystallization, multivocality, member reflections
e. Resonance- research influences, affects or moves readers through aesthetic, evocative represation, naturalistic generalizations, transferable findings
f. significant contribution- conceptually/theoretically, practically, morally, methodologically, heuristically
g. Ethical- research considers procedural ethics, situational and culturally specific ethics, relational ethics, exiting ethics (leaving the scene and sharing findings)
h. meaningful coherence- achieves what it purports to be about, methods and procedures to fit goals, meaningfully interconnect literature, research questions, findings, and interpreations
Alase, 2017
Alase, A. (2017). The Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA): A Guide to a Good Qualitative Research Approach. International Journal of Education & Literacy Studies, 5(2). http://www.proquest.com/docview/1910327736/abstract/649A7B170B794C30PQ/1
IPA guide
participant oriented, to understand lived experiences of participants
examines subjective experience but is always the subjective experience of “something”
experiences can be understood via an examination of the meanings which people impress upon it
making sense of what is being said involves interpretive engagement, also needs reflective practice and bracketing
making sense of the participant who is making sense of X phenomenon
phenomenological approach gives in-depth description and interpretation of lived experiences via how the phenomeneon has impacted the lives of participants
participant size- 2-25, with similar lived experiences of the phenomenon
purposive samply rather than probability because they offer insights into particular experience
invitation, snowball
bracket preconceptions during interviews, when designing interviews, and other data collection events
Recommends: semi-structured or unstructured interviews with 2-25 participants, 60-90 minutes long, only one planned intreview per person, but can include follow-ups, participant chooses location, date, time, and use technological devices to record
Data coding procedure: read through interview responses and identify common themes, words/phrases that are repeated; re-read transcripts for clarity (and a third time)
code in 3 cycles- first code the lengthy responses by each participant into meaningful statements
second, another condensation process that further helps researcher reduce the generic statements into fewer words, move closer to the core essence
third, category phase narrows down to extremely few words, trying to encapsulate the core essence in one or two words without diminishgin or misrepresenting the core meaning
use the same process to develop research themes
the last step is the essence statement that explains what participants experienced and how they experienced the phenomenon in context
researcher reflection statement- reflexive thoughts on the self, how researcher got to final destination in research
Creswell & Poth, 2018
transcendental phenomenology- focuses on descriptions of participants experiences. Set aside experiences and look with fresh perspective, for the first time.
