Qual

Question 1

True or false:

All statements are reciprocal

Answer 1

False

All Statements are not reciprocal
All statements always imply the contrapositive

This means the converse is a fallacy of All statements (it is also a fallacy of most statements)

Question 2

Most

Answer 2

Most implies a majority (>50%) greater than half

Question 3

True or false:

All statements always imply the contrapositive

Answer 3

True

All Statements are not reciprocal
All statements always imply the contrapositive

Question 4

True or false:

Most statements are reciprocal

Answer 4

False

Most statements are not reciprocal
Most statements don’t have a contrapositive
Most statements can be all

Because Most statements are not reciprocal, like All statements, they can suffer the converse fallacy

Question 5

True or false:

Most statements are not reciprocal

Answer 5

True

Most statements are not reciprocal
Most statements don’t have a contrapositive
Most statements can be all

Because Most statements are not reciprocal, like All statements, they can suffer the converse fallacy

Question 6

True or false:

Most people who play Dungeons and Dragons live in their parents’ house, so you can infer that most people who live in their parents’ house play Dungeons and Dragons

Answer 6

False

False

Most statements are not reciprocal
Most statements don’t have a contrapositive
Most statements can be all

Because Most statements are not reciprocal, like All statements, they can suffer the converse fallacy

DD -m-> PH
A-m-> B does not translate to B-m->A

Question 7

Diagram most A’s are B’s

Answer 7

A -most-> B

Question 8

Most vs The Most

Answer 8

Majority vs Plurality

Question 9

True or false:

Most could be All

Answer 9

True

Most can be All

Question 10

True or false:

Most cannot be All

Answer 10

False

Most can be all

Question 11

If most A’s are B’s does it mean that there are A’s that are not B’s

Answer 11

Not necessarily,

Most statements can be more than half or even All

Question 12

True or false:
Most people who play Dungeons and Dragons live in their parents’ house, therefore, there are some people who play DD who don’t live in their parents’ house

Answer 12

False, we cannot say this for certain
Most statements can be more than half or even All

DD-most->PB does not translate to DD -s->not Pb

A-most->B does not mean A-some-> not B

Question 13

True or false:

Some statements are reciprocal

Answer 13

True
Some statements are reciprocal
If some A are B’s, then some B’s are A’s
A-some-B is the same as B-some-A

Some statements do not have a contrapositive
Some could be just one
Some could be Most or even All

Question 14

True or false:

If some A are B’s, then some B’s are A’s

Answer 14

True
Some statements are reciprocal
If some A are B’s, then some B’s are A’s
A-some-B is the same as B-some-A

Some statements do not have a contrapositive
Some could be just one
Some could be Most or even All

Question 15

True or false:
Some of the people are going.
Therefore, all the people might be going.

Answer 15

True

Some could be just one
Some could be Most or even All

Some statements are reciprocal
If some A are B’s, then some B’s are A’s
A-some-B is the same as B-some-A

Some statements do not have a contrapositive

Question 16

Easy way of remembering what some translates to

Answer 16

At least one

Some could be just one
Some could be Most or even All

Some statements are reciprocal
If some A are B’s, then some B’s are A’s
A-some-B is the same as B-some-A

Some statements do not have a contrapositive

Question 17

True or false.

Some A are B’s, therefore, there are some A’s that are not B’s

Answer 17

False. The statement is invalid.

Some could be just one
Some could be Most or even All

A-some-B cannot be understood to be A-some-not B

Some statements are reciprocal
If some A are B’s, then some B’s are A’s
A-some-B is the same as B-some-A

Some statements do not have a contrapositive

Question 18

True or false:
All A’s are B’s, and some B’s are C’s.
Therefore, Some A’s are C’s

Answer 18

False
A->B
B-some-C
-------------
A-some-C

Invalid^
.
.

A->B
A-some-C
————-
B-some-C

^Valid
.
.
To validly draw an inference from an All statement and a some statement, the term shared by the two statements must be the sufficient condition of the all statement.

In the case above, A wasn’t present in the some statement

Question 19

All A’s are B’s, and some A’s are C’s.

Therefore, some B’s are C’s

Answer 19

True

A->B
A-some-C
————-
B-some-C

^Valid
.
.
To validly draw an inference from an All statement and a some statement, the term shared by the two statements must be the sufficient condition of the all statement.
.
.
.
.

A->B
B-some-C
————-
A-some-C

Invalid^
In the case above, A wasn’t present in the some statement

Question 20

All A’s are B’s and some C’s are A’s.

Therefore, some C’s are B’s

Answer 20

True

A->B
A-some-C (reversible)
————-
B-some-C (reversible)

^Valid
.
.
To validly draw an inference from an All statement and a some statement, the term shared by the two statements must be the sufficient condition of the all statement.
.
.
.
.

A->B
B-some-C
————-
A-some-C

Invalid^
In the case above, A wasn’t present in the some statement

Question 21

True or false:
All circus performers have extraordinary talents.
Some people with extraordinary talents can swallow swords. Therefore, some circus performers can swallow swords.

Answer 21

False

Circus performer -> Extraordinary Talent
Extraordinary Talent -some-> Swallow Swords
——————
Circus Performer -some-> Swallow Swords
.
^Invalid!
.
.
To validly draw an inference from an All statement and a some statement, the term shared by the two statements must be the sufficient condition of the all statement.
-
The shared term in the argument above is the necessary of the All statement. It has to be the sufficient, the all “blanks”

Question 22

True or false:
All circus performers have extraordinary talents.
Some people who can swallow swords perform in the circus. Therefore, some people with extraordinary talents can swallow swords

Answer 22

true. the statement is valid

A->B
A-some-C (reversible)
————-
B-some-C (reversible)

^Valid
.
.
To validly draw an inference from an All statement and a Some statement, the term shared by the two statements must be the sufficient condition of the all statement.
.
.
.
.

A->B
B-some-C
————-
A-some-C

Invalid^
In the case above, A wasn’t present in the some statement

Question 23

To validly draw an inference from an All statement and a Some statement, the term shared by the two statements must be the

Answer 23

sufficient condition of the all statement.
.
A->B    ---this A
A-some-C  (reversible)
-------------
B-some-C   (reversible)

Question 24

True or false:
To validly draw an inference from an All statement and a Some statement, the term shared by the two statements must be the necessary condition of the all statement.

Answer 24

False

it is the sufficient assumption that must appear in both statements to produce a some

A->B
B-some-C
————-
A-some-C

Invalid^
.
.
.
A->B
A-some-C  (reversible)
-------------
B-some-C   (reversible) 

^Valid
.

Question 25

Most A's are B's | All B's are C's

Answer 25

``` A-m->B B -> C ----------- A -most-> C When the Sufficient condition of the All statement is the Necessary of the Most statement, then you can infer a Most Start with sufficient from Most . . A-m-> B A -> C ---------- B -some- C When the sufficient of the All statement matches with the sufficient of the Most statement, then you can infer a Some ```

Question 26

All A's are C's | Most A's are B's

Answer 26

``` A -> C A-m->B ------------ C -some-B . When the sufficient of the All statement matches with the sufficient of the Most statement, then you can infer a Some . . . A-m->B B -> C ----------- A -most-> C When the Sufficient condition of the All statement is the Necessary of the Most statement, then you can infer a Most ```

Question 27

``` True or false All A's are B's Most B's are C's --------------- Most A's are C's ```

Answer 27

false | No valid conclusion can be made from this

Question 28

In order to make any inference from an All and a Most statement,

Answer 28

The shared condition MUST be on the Sufficient of the All if it is shared with the Necessary of the Most = Most with Sufficient of Most = Some

Question 29

To make a deduction from two most sections..

Answer 29

The two sufficient conditions - the thing before the arrow - must be the same. Then draw a some between the two different remaining conditions A-most->B A-most->C ------------- B-some-C

Question 30

Most 1's are 2's | All 2's are 3's

Answer 30

Most 1's are 2's All 2's are 3's -------- Most 1's are 3's

Question 31

F --> C + C (xIx) D

Answer 31

``` Valid Inference F --> C C (xIx) D ----------- F --> C D ======== F (xIx) D ``` This is a valid inference . . . . ``` Compare that with D --> G + C (xIx) D --------- C (xIx) D --> G Not a valid inference ```

Question 32

D --> G + C (xIx) D

Answer 32

Can't produce a double arrow unless matching end is on the necessary ``` D --> G + C (xIx) D --------- C (xIx) D --> G Not a valid inference ``` -only valid conclusion you can get is that "some G's are not C's" Compare with . ``` Valid Inference F --> C C (xIx) D ----------- F --> C (xIx) D ======== F (xIx) D ```

Question 33

A -> B | B -some- C

Answer 33

Cant get valid inference Some MUST match SUFFICIENT condition of All A -> B A -some- C ----------- B -some- C

Question 34

A -> B | A -some- C

Answer 34

Valid inference Some MUST match SUFFICIENT condition of All A -> B A -some- C ----------- B -some- C

Question 35

When adding together a Some statement with an All, the BLANK condition of the All Must be found in the Some

Answer 35

When adding together a Some statement with an All, the SUFFICIENT condition of the All Must be found in the Some Valid inference Some MUST match SUFFICIENT condition of All A -> B A -some- C ----------- B -some- C

Question 36

All A's are B's Some A's are C's Therefore, some B's are C's

Answer 36

When adding together a Some statement with an All, the SUFFICIENT condition of the All Must be found in the Some Valid inference Some MUST match SUFFICIENT condition of All A -> B A -some- C ----------- B -some- C

Question 37

All A's are B's Some B's are C's Therefore, some A's are C's

Answer 37

False - Invalid Some MUST match SUFFICIENT condition of All A -> B A -some- C ----------- B -some- C

Question 38

All C's are E's | Some E's are T's

Answer 38

No valid conclusion Invalid Some MUST match SUFFICIENT condition of All to produce a some A -> B A -some- C ----------- B -some- C

Question 39

Most N's are D's | All D's are J's

Answer 39

Therefore, most N's are J's N-most-D D -> J ---------- N -most-J Valid

Question 40

D -> E E -most- C --------- D -most-C

Answer 40

False

Question 41

SC -most- V V -most- U ---------- SC-most-U

Answer 41

False There is only one deduction that can be drawn by two most statements SC -most- V SC -most- U ------------ V -some- U

Question 42

SC -most- V SC -most- U ------------ V -some- U

Answer 42

Valid There is only one deduction that can be drawn by two most statements SC -most- V SC -most- U ------------ V -some- U ``` - - A -most- B A -most- C ---------- B -some- C ```

Question 43

All A's are are B's | Most B's are C's

Answer 43

False

Question 44

Some from

Answer 44

A -> B infers B some A A -most-> B infers B some A A->B All apples are fruit some fruit are apples

Question 45

Anytime you see ~A-->B in a group game

Answer 45

know that at least one must be present

Question 46

If a group contains i then that group contains neither j nor k

Answer 46

i (xIx) j | i (xIx) k

Question 47

contra ~g --> j and k

Answer 47

~j or ~k --> G

Question 48

inferences? there are three groups, each group has a minimum of three members. Each member can appear in a maximum of two groups members: FGHIJK - 6 G --> F i (xIx) J i (xIx) K ~G --> J and K to ~J or ~K --> G

Answer 48

i --> ~J + ~K --> G --> F i --> G ---> F ~F--> ~G --> J and K --> ~I (if F is not in a given group then that group can contain neither G nor I) at least 3 members must show up twice to reach the required 3 group size for the 3 groups ~F --> H + J + K If F isnt in a group then H, J and K must be in the group to reach the required 3 minimum, so we know that one group is made up of these members

Question 49

Most

Answer 49

The word “most” can be defined as a majority, possibly all (just as some can be all) ``` most a majority more than half almost all usually typically ```

Question 50

Words introducing most

Answer 50

``` most a majority more than half almost all usually typically ``` The word “most” can be defined as a majority, possibly all (just as some can be all)

Question 51

At least one heron has blue feathers.

Answer 51

H some BF (where H stands for heron and BF stands for blue feathers)

Question 52

A majority of senators are wealthy

Answer 52

S --most--- > W

Question 53

Not all of the Smallville roads are safe.

Answer 53

SR some ~S | where SR stands for Smallville roads and S stands for safe

Question 54

A few of the schools no longer offer business degrees.

Answer 54

S some ~ OBD (where S stands for schools and OBD stands for offer business degrees)

Question 55

More often than not, dinner for two is expensive.

Answer 55

D2 --most--> E | where D2 stands for dinner for two and E stands for expensive

Question 56

Most of the time playing the stock market is not profitable.

Answer 56

PSM --most--> ~P (where PSM stands for playing the stock market and P stands for profitable)

Question 57

Some are not

Answer 57

aka not all | 0-99

Question 58

All Most Some None in numbers

Answer 58

All = 100 Most = 51 to 100 (“a majority”) Some are not = 0 to 99 (also “Not All”) Most are not = 0 to 49 Some = 1 to 100 (“at least one”) None = 0

Question 59

some A’s are not B’s

Answer 59

A some ~B reversed is “Some things that are not B are A’s.”

Question 60

Reverse A some ~B

Answer 60

A some ~B reversed is “Some things that are not B are A’s.”

Question 61

Eight books are assigned to three students. | Each student is assigned at least two books.

Answer 61

4-2-2 | 3-3-2

Question 62

If a must be true question has answer choices of blank happens "or" blank happens what do you do

Answer 62

Show that one or the other or both must occur If or appears on a could be true show that one or the other could occur If it appears on a must be false show that neither one can occur

Question 63

Of the five answer choices each Most Strongly Supported question gives you, .......

Answer 63

Of the five answer choices each Most Strongly Supported (Soft Must Be True) question gives you, only one will have any support at all. The other four will be utterly unsupported. the right question to ask is "Which answer choice has some support and which four have no support whatsoever." ``` ...most strongly support... ...most support... ...most logically completes... ...most strongly supported... ...best support... ...most logically completes... ...grounds for accepting... ...conforms most closely to the principle... ```

Question 64

For what kinds of questions can you ask yourself "Which answer choice has some support and which four have no support whatsoever."

Answer 64

Soft Must Be True Of the five answer choices each Most Strongly Supported (Soft Must Be True) question gives you, only one will have any support at all. The other four will be utterly unsupported. the right question to ask is "Which answer choice has some support and which four have no support whatsoever." ``` ...most strongly support... ...most support... ...most logically completes... ...most strongly supported... ...best support... ...most logically completes... ...grounds for accepting... ...conforms most closely to the principle... ```

Question 65

Soft Must Be True Question Stems

Answer 65

``` ...most strongly support... ...most support... ...most logically completes... ...most strongly supported... ...best support... ...most logically completes... ...grounds for accepting... ...conforms most closely to the principle... ```

Question 66

If asked for an "Inference"

Answer 66

It is a Must Be True Question An Inference is defined as something that must be true List of Must Be True question Stems ``` ...can be properly inferred... ...can be inferred... ...commit him/her to... ...inference that can be properly drawn... ...logically follows... ...according to the principle stated above... ...must also be true... ...can be properly concluded... ...must on the basis of them be true... ...must also be true... ...must also have been shown... ...logically follows... ```

Question 67

Justify Formula

Answer 67

Premises + Answer Choice = Conclusion The Justify Formula is a useful tool for understanding how Justify the Conclusion questions work. If the answer choice is incorrect, the application of the Justify Formula will fail to produce the given conclusion.

Question 68

Premises + Answer Choice = Conclusion

Answer 68

Justify Formula The Justify Formula is a useful tool for understanding how Justify the Conclusion questions work. If the answer choice is incorrect, the application of the Justify Formula will fail to produce the given conclusion.

Question 69

Take for ganted

Answer 69

the author does believe the following without justification.

Question 70

The two types of answers that will always be correct | in a Must Be True question.

Answer 70

1. Paraphrased Answers Paraphrased Answers are answers that restate a portion of the stimulus in different terms. Because the language is not exactly the same as in the stimulus, Paraphrased Answers can be easy to miss. Paraphrased Answers are designed to test your ability to discern the author’s exact meaning. Sometimes the answer can appear to be almost too obvious since it is drawn directly from the stimulus. 2. Answers that are the sum of two or more stimulus statements (Combination Answers) Any answer choice that would result from combining two or more statements in the stimulus will be correct. Should you encounter either of the above as answer choices in a Must Be True question, go ahead and select the answer with confidence.

Question 71

Incorrect answer types for Must Be True questions

Answer 71

Could Be True answers are attractive because they can possibly occur, but they are incorrect because they do not have to be true. Exaggerated answers take information from the stimulus and then stretch that information to make a broader statement that is not supported by the stimulus. New Information answers include information not explicitly mentioned in the stimulus. Be careful with these answers: first examine the scope of the stimulus to make sure the “new” information does not fall under the umbrella of a term or concept in the stimulus. Second, examine the answer to make sure it is not the consequence of combining stimulus elements. The Shell Game occurs when an idea or concept is raised in the stimulus, and then a very similar idea appears in the answer choice, but the idea is changed just enough to be incorrect but still attractive. The Opposite answer is completely opposite of the facts of the stimulus. The Reverse answer is attractive because it contains familiar elements from the stimulus, but the reversed statement is incorrect because it rearranges those elements to create a new, unsupported statement. - sometimes through the reversal of logic

Question 72

only and its use in sufficient and necessary conditions

Answer 72

Only - is necessary - "only zombies eat brains" -- eat brains > zombies Only If - is necessary - I will be a lawyer only if I go to law school - lawyer > law school EXCEPTION THE ONLY - sufficient the only people who can wear underwear outside pants are superheros underwear outside pants > Superhero

Question 73

Diagram the only people who can wear underwear outside pants are superheros

Answer 73

Only - is necessary - "only zombies eat brains" -- eat brains > zombies Only If - is necessary - I will be a lawyer only if I go to law school - lawyer > law school EXCEPTION THE ONLY - sufficient the only people who can wear underwear outside pants are superheros underwear outside pants > Superhero

Question 74

What is this | Neither darts nor table tennis are playable underwater

Answer 74

a conjunction (AND) cant do this and cant do that neither nor means you cant have either

Question 75

What is this | A or B

Answer 75

an inclusive disjunction A or B means A, B, or A + B essentially, at least one, possibly both

Question 76

Not A or not B

Answer 76

Not both - called an Exclusive Disjunction A, B, or neither

Question 77

Not both

Answer 77

Not A or not B Not both - called an Exclusive Disjunction A, B, or neither It is the negation of an inclusive disjunct

Question 78

Contrapositive NC > V or T

Answer 78

~ T and ~ V > ~ NC If no T and no V then no NC

Question 79

Modality

Answer 79

the degree of necessity expressed by a proposition how sure that something is going to happen STRONG - when things are 100% necessity, must, always, is MODERATE - likely going to happen probably, likely, usually WEAK - possibility May, might, could, can, occasionally Conclusions can only be supported by premises of equal or greater strength

Question 80

Three different Primary Structures in reading passages

Answer 80

1) Thesis - One primary point of view (no disagreement) 2) Antithesis - Two primary points of view (two conflicting) 3) Synthesis - Three primary points of view (two conflicting - one of resolution)

Question 81

All

Answer 81

equivalent to a sufficient condition, ie if you are

Question 82

Anithesis Reading Passage Structure Main point answer characteristics for absent author vs present author versions

Answer 82

Antithesis Absent author Look for answers that best encompass both points of view Present author Look for answer choices that best capture the authors point of view

Question 83

Anithesis Reading Passage Structure Purpose answer characteristics for absent author vs present author versions

Answer 83

Absent author: Look for answer choices that best describe the way in which the views relate to eachother as presented by a neutral third party (explain debate, describe controversy, present two opposing viewpoints) Present author: Look for answer choices that best describe the author's position relative to the two views presented

Question 84

Anithesis Reading Passage Structure Author's Attitude answer characteristics for absent author vs present author versions

Answer 84

Absent Author: Look for neutral authors (objective/impartial) Present Author: Look for answer choices that align with the author's opinion on either thesis

Question 85

Antithesis Reading Passage Structure

Answer 85

The antithesis structure is characterized by the presence of two main perspectives on the subject matter. These two viewpoints tend to disagree. The author may either agree or disagree (present author) or simply stay neutral/have no opinion (absent author)

Question 86

If the author's view is present in a reading passage...

Answer 86

their opinion/view is the main point

Question 87

Failure of exclusivity

Answer 87

1. An argument that will fail to establish the list of options is exhaustive (that no other option is available) or an argument will fail to sufficiently eliminate some of the options 2. An argument will falsely assume that two options are exclusive (that it cannot be a combination of both)

Question 88

Sampling Fallacies

Answer 88

When an argument relies on a poll to justify its conclusion, there must be nothing wrong with the evidence 1) The sample group must be an accurate representation of the group it purports to represent 2) Those surveyed must understand the survey and not have any motive to misrepresent themselves 3) Any conclusion made from the survey must be intelligibly related to the questions asked in the survey

Question 89

What two types of equivocation appear on the LSAT | - esp flaw

Answer 89

1. Shift in meaning If the meanings of any key words shift in meaning during the course of an argument, the argument may be invalid 2. Related but Distinct Concepts Arguments on the LSAT can equivocate between two related yet distinct concepts. It is a fallacy to treat these concepts as though they are the same

Question 90

What flaw? Sam is at best able to write articles of average quality. The most compelling evidence for this are those few of the numerous articles submitted by Sam that are superior., since he is incapable of writing an article that is better than average, must obviously have plagiarized superior ones.

Answer 90

Circular Reasoning - when a conclusion simply restates one or more of its premises answer: It presupposes what it seeks to establish

Question 91

when a conclusion simply restates one or more of its premises

Answer 91

Circular Reasoning

Question 92

Circular Reasoning

Answer 92

when a conclusion simply restates one or more of its premises

Question 93

Temporal Fallacy

Answer 93

The attempt to draw a definitive conclusion about one time (past, present or future) from premises about another time period Steve is always on time, so he'll make it on time today

Question 94

Answer for a Parallel Question

Answer 94

Correct answer characteristics: Same logical structure (same # of premises, same # of terms, same validity status, and a conclusion with the same modality, quantifier, and logical structure) Common incorrect answers: Arguments in which the subject matter is the same or similar to the stimulus Arguments in which the scope, modality or quantifiers differ from the stimulus

Question 95

If you cant diagram an argument, what do you do in the case of Parallel questions

Answer 95

give it a motto

Question 96

Difference between Parallel Reasoning and Parallel the flaw questions

Answer 96

In parallel reasoning question nearly everything has to match in parallel flaw questions, however, only the particular type of fallacy must match