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Q4 Exam Flashcards

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1
Q

The 2 Types of Integral Proteins

A

Channel Proteins: Transports most of the ions and hydrophilic molecules through facilitated diffusion

Carrier Proteins / Protein Pumps: Transport molecules by active transport using ATP

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2
Q

Germ Cell Mutation VS Somatic Cell Mutation

A

Somatic occurs in body cells
Germ occurs in reproductive organs

Somatic is not passed onto offspring
Germ is passed onto offspring

Somatic can lead to health issues or diseases
Germ can directly affect offspring and all cells developed from the mutated zygote

Somatic is common
Germ is rare

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3
Q

Types of Base Substitution Mutations

A

Silent: Does not alter the amino acid sequence of the polypeptide, and occurs because of degenerate genetic code where multiple codons code for the same amino acid, which leads it to be unchanged

Missense: Causes the expression of a different amino acid

Nonsense: Adds a stop codon to the premature protein and stops protein synthesis

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4
Q

Sex-linked Dominant

A

Common in females

If a male shows a trait, then all his daughters and mother must

An unaffected mother can not have affected sons

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5
Q

Insulin and Function

A

Made of two polypeptide chains linked by disulfide bonds which is quaternary

Its shape allows it to bind to insulin receptors to regulate glucose uptake

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6
Q

Monozygotic and Dizygotic

A

Dizygotic (Fraternal): When two eggs are released during ovulation, they are both fertilized

Monozygotic (Identical): When one egg splits into two and both zygotes develop into separate individuals

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7
Q

Molecules that are Polar or Non-Polar

A

Glucose: Polar

Amino Acids: Depending on R group

Oxygen: Non-Polar

NaCl: Ionic

Fats: Non-Polar

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8
Q

Purpose of Control of Cell Division

A

Ensures that each daughter cell receives an exact copy of their parent’s DNA

Maintains proper cell numbers by preventing uncontrolled division

Allows for cell differentiation to create various cell types

Allows for organism growth, tissue repair, and wound healing

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9
Q

Hypotonic Effect in Plant Cell and Reason

A

Swells and becomes turgid as the plant cell has a strong cell wall which can build up turgor pressure

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10
Q

Difference with Cyclic and Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation

A

Non-cyclic pathway of electrons
Cyclic pathway of electrons

PSI and PSII are used
Only PSI is used

Photolysis is required
Photolysis is not required

Source of electrons is water
Source of electrons is PSI

Products are ATP, NADPH, and Oxygen
Product is only ATP

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11
Q

Prophase Events

A

Chromatin condense into chromosomes by supercoiling and becoming visible

The nuclear membrane starts disappearing

Centrosomes move to opposite poles of the cell and the microtubules start to form

Kinetochores start to appear on centromeres

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12
Q

Glycolipid Protein Location and Function

A

Location: Phospholipids with carbohydrates attached, hydrophilic

Function: Cell recognition, identifies self and non-self cells, forms a layer with glycoprotein called glycocalyx which binds cells together and prevents the tissue from falling apart

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13
Q

Ratio of Unlinked Genes

A

Hetero with Hetero = 9:3:3:1

Hetero with Homo recessive = 1:1:1:1

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14
Q

Isotonic Effect in Animal Cell and Reason

A

No effect as water diffuses between outside and inside equally

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15
Q

Activation Energy

A

The minimum amount of energy required in order to start a reaction

The higher the activation energy, the slower the reaction

Enzymes reduce activation energy by distorting the shape of the substrate when it binds to the active site

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16
Q

Process of Crispr-Cas9 formation

A

Virus tries to invade bacteria

Bacteria fights back and grabs a fragment of virus DNA

The bacteria stores this snippet as a CRISPR sequence in its DNA

Over time, the bacteria collects many CRISPR sequences from different viruses forming a library

If the same virus attacks again, the bacteria recognizes it from its library and uses CRISPR sequence to guide Cas9 to virus’ DNA to cut the viral DNA

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17
Q

Gated Ion Channels

A

Three sodium ions bind on the sodium potassium pump in the intracellular space

ATP attaches to the protein and a phosphate group is transferred to the pump via hydrolysis

This causes a change in shape for the sodium pump, thus releasing the sodium ions into the exterior

Two potassium ions bind to different regions of the protein in the exterior surface which causes the release of the phosphate group

The loss of phosphate makes the pump revert back to its original shape and releases the potassium ions into the intracellular space

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18
Q

Interdependence of Light Dependent and Interdependent Reactions

A

Light independent reactions depend on dependent reaction for supply of ATP and NADPH. ATP and RedNADP are utilized in light independent reactions for the reduction of carbon dioxide into gluvose

Lack of light stops light dependent reactions and a lack of CO2 prevents PSII from functioning

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19
Q

Thermoregulation Mechanisms when Cold

A

Shivering: Muscles contract to generate heat

Vasoconstriction: Blood vessels in the skin constrict which reduces blood flow to minimize heat loss

Hairs Contract: Hairs stand, trapping a layer of insulating air next to the skin (Goosebumps)

Metabolic Rate Increases: Thyroid gland produces more thyroxin which increases body’s metabolic activity

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20
Q

Process of Ultrafiltration

A

Since the afferent arteriole is much larger than the efferent, it builds up hydrostatic pressure inside the capillaries, forcing fluids to pass from the blood through the fenestrated capillaries in the glomerulus into the Bowman’s Capsule

The liquid then drains through the Bowman’s Capsule to the Proximal Convoluted Tubule

Large molecules like blood cells and proteins can’t pass through the Bowman’s Capsule, therefore have to return to the blood through the efferent arteriole

The liquid that passes through the Bowman’s Capsule is called Glomerular Filtrate, and includes water, salts and amino acids

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21
Q

Mutations Classifications

A

Point Mutations: Base substitution
Frameshift Mutations: Insertion and Deletion

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22
Q

Post-transcriptional Modification

A

In eukaryotes, the mRNA has to undergo modification in order to become mature mRNA before it exits the nucleus

The non-coding introns are removed from the mRNA through RNA splicing, therefore having mature mRNA

mRNA gets addition of methyl group at the 5’ end called capping which provides protection against degradation by enzymes

mRNA gets addition of long chain of adenine bases at the 3’ end called polyadenylation which stabilizes RNA and facilitates its export outside the nucleus

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23
Q

Hypotonic Effect in General

A

Water moves by osmosis from lower solute concentration (outside) to higher solute concentration (inside), thus increasing the volume of the cell

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24
Q

Prophase I Events

A

Replicated chromosomes condense by supercoiling and becoming visible

Replicated homologous chromosomes pair up to form bivalent and undergo crossing over

Spindle fibers form and stretch out from each pole to the equator

The nuclear membrane starts to break down

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25
Q

Telophase Events

A

Microtubule spindle fibers disintegrate

The nuclear membrane reforms around the daughter chromosomes

Chromosomes uncondensed and coil back to become no longer visible

During the entire process of mitosis, the cell undergoes cytokinesis and ends in telophase

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26
Q

Starch Structure (Polysaccharides)

A

Consists of 2 types of molecules:

Amylose: Straight chain of alpha glucose units joined by 1-4 glycosidic bonds that coil up to form a helix which makes it more compact so resists digestion

Amylopectin: Branched chain of alpha glucose joined 1-4 with some 1-6 glycosidic bonds. Branches result in many free end glucose molecules that can be easily hydrolyzed

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27
Q

Type 1 VS Type 2 Diabetes

A

Insulin is not being produced
Pancreas doesn’t respond to insulin

Genetic and environmental factors
Age and diet and genetics

During childhood
During adulthood

No proven cure
Lifestyle modifications such as diet and exercise

Requires insulin injections to regulate blood sugar
Medication and managing lifestyle

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28
Q

Structure of the Cells of the Tubules Adapted for Reabsorption

A

Microvilli: Increase the surface area of the inner surface

Pumps: Actively transport glucose and amino acids against their concentration gradient

Mitochondria: Provides ATP needed for Selective Reabsorption

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29
Q

Linked Genes

A

Genes are found on the same chromosome pair

Chromosomes don’t assort independently and tend to be inherited together

Recombination only occurs if crossing over occurs

The closer two alleles are on a chromosome, the less likely crossing over will occur, vice versa

Have fewer recombinants than unlinked genes

Represented as AB//ab

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30
Q

Cellulose

A

Straight parallel chains of beta glucose joined by a condensation reaction with 1-4 glycosidic bonds

Each glucose molecule flips 180 degrees leading to glycosidic bonds alternating up and down

Hydrogen bonds form between parallel chains which cause the formation of microfibrils which are very strong

Microfibrils give cellulose fibres a very high tensile strength and allow a cell to withstand large pressures from osmosis

The function of cellulose is to provide strength for cell walls in plant cells

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31
Q

Cytokinesis in Animal Cell

A

A contractile protein ring forms around the equator of the cell and pulls the plasma membrane inwards. This inward pull is called the cleavage furrow, and when the cleavage furrow reaches the center of the cell it is pinched apart to form two daughter cells

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32
Q

Meiosis I VS Meiosis II

A

Synapsis and crossing over occurs in Prophase I
Synapsis and crossing over doesn’t occur in Prophase II

Homologous pairs of chromosomes line up in the equator
Sister chromatids line up in the equator

Homologous pairs of chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles of the cell
Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles of the cell

2 haploid cells are formed
4 haploid cells are formed

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33
Q

Conserved and Highly Conserved Sequences

A

Conserved: Identical or similar across a species or group of species

Highly Conserved: Identical or similar along long period of evolution

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34
Q

Functions of the Plasma Membrane

A

Structural (keeps cell contents together)

Serves as the boundary between the cytoplasm and the external environment

Maintains stability and fluidity of the cell

Provides cell-to-cell communication by different mechanisms

Controls what enters and exits the cell

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35
Q

What Separates Glomerulus and Lumen

A

Endothelium: 1 cell thick with more gaps than other capillaries

Basement Membrane: Made of network of collagen and glycoprotein

Podocytes: Cells that wrap around the capillaries of the glomerulus

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36
Q

Role of Enzymes in DNA Replication

A

Gyrase decreases helical strain just ahead of Helicase

Helicase unwinds the DNA double helix by breaking the hydrogen bonds between the bases, separating it into two strands

Primase is an RNA polymerase which adds RNA primer at the 3’ end of each template strand to act as the starting point of replication

DNA Polymerase III binds to the primer and moves in opposite direction (5’ to 3’) and adds free nucleotides to each strand using complementary base pairing

DNA Polymerase I removes the RNA primers and replaces them with DNA

Ligase seals up the Okazaki Fragments together after Primers are removed to form a continuous strand

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37
Q

Brain in Sleep, Vigorous Exercise, and Wakeful Rest

A

Sleep: High to support essential functions such as memory

Vigorous Exercise: High to meet the high metabolic demands and maintain cognitive function and coordination

Wakeful Rest: High to sustain cognitive function and consciousness while the body is awake and alert

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38
Q

Features of a Competitive Inhibitor

A

Has a similar structure to the normal substrate

Binds with the active site, and therefore competes with the substrate for the active site, thus reducing the number of enzyme-substrate complexes

Can be overcome with increasing substrate concentration

Rate will eventually reach maximum

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39
Q

Solubility of Carbohydrates, Fats and Proteins

A

Carbohydrates: Only sugars are soluble

Fats: Low solubility is soluble

Proteins: Some are soluble

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40
Q

Glucagon and Raising Blood Glucose

A

Alpha cells in the pancreas produce glucagon in response to low blood sugar to raise it

Glucagon prevents the conversion of glucose into fatty acids for storage, breaks down glycogen into glucose, and decreases respiration

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41
Q

Collecting Duct

A

After loop of Henle, the fluid moves to the collecting duct where the high solute concentration establishes an osmotic gradient. Water in the filtrate can passively diffuse out into the blood thus making the urine more concentrated

The water leaves through aquaporins which are controlled by ADH, which allows for the amount of water in urine to be controlled

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42
Q

Hemoglobin and Function

A

Transport protein

Made of 4 polypeptide chains and has 4 heme prosthetic groups

Each heme group binds to oxygen and transports it with the red blood cell

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43
Q

Conditions for Ultrafiltration

A

Hydrostatic Pressure due to the difference in diameter between afferent and efferent arteriole

Basement Membrane to restrict the passage of large molecules such as blood cells and proteins

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44
Q

Triglycerides Structure

A

Made of a glycerol backbone attached to 3 fatty acids in a condensation reaction and joined together by ester bonds

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45
Q

Blood Groups and Alleles

A

A - I^A
B - I^B
IA - I^AI^B
O - i

A and B code for enzymes that add specific sugars to a glycoprotein on the RBC

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46
Q

LDR VS LIR

A

LDR takes place only in presence of light
LIR takes place in presence and absence of light

LDR takes place in thylakoid mb
LIR takes place in stroma

LDR converts light energy into chemical energy
LIR use the chemical energy to fix CO2

LDR has photolysis occur in PSII
LIR has no photolysis

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47
Q

Gut in Sleep, Vigorous Exercise, and Wakeful Rest

A

Sleep: Low as body’s metabolic activity decreases

Vigorous Exercise: Low as blood is redirected to other vital organs involved in exercise

Wakeful Rest: Moderate to support ongoing digestive processes and nutrient absorption from food intake

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48
Q

Applications of Gene Editing

A

Correcting genetic diseases

Developing new therapies for cancer and other illnesses

Engineering crops with desirable traits like resistance to pests or diseases

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49
Q

Post-translational Modification

A

Polypeptides get modified to make them fully function. Examples of modification include

Removal of methionine from 5’ end

Changes to side chains of amino acids

Folding of polypeptide or combining two or more polypeptides

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50
Q

Mode of Transport for Molecules

A

Glucose: Dissolved in blood plasma

Amino Acids: Dissolved in blood plasma

Oxygen: Attaches to the hemoglobin of the RBC

NaCl: Ionizes into Na and Cl in plasma

Fats: Carried in blood plasma inside lipoprotein complexes with a single layer of phospholipids

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51
Q

Afferent and Efferent Arterioles

A

Blood arrives to the nephron in the afferent arterioles and delivers to network of capillaries called a glomerulus in a cup shaped structure called Bowman’s Capsule

Blood leaves the glomerulus in the efferent arteriole which is narrower than the afferent arteriole

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52
Q

Parental VS Recombinant Geno and Phenotypes

A

Phenotypes of offspring often resemble (at least 1) parents
Phenotypes of offspring differ from both parents

Genotype shows that traits are either dominant or recessive
Genotype shows that one trait is dominant and one recessive

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53
Q

Transcription VS Translation

A

DNA gets transcribed
RNA gets translated

Takes place in nucleus
Takes place in cytoplasm (ribosome)

mRNA is produced
Polypeptide is produced

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54
Q

Sickle Cell Anemia Altered RBC

A

DNA sense strand is GTG
DNA template strand is CAC
mRNA is GUG
Valine which is hydrophobic and makes hemoglobin less soluble
Sickle Shaped

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55
Q

Difference with Endothermic and Exothermic Reaction

A

Endothermic is Anabolic
Exothermic is Catabolic

Endothermic requires energy
Exothermic releases energy

Energy of products is more than energy of reactants in Endothermic
Energy of products is less than energy of reactants in Exothermic

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56
Q

Glycogen Structure (Polysaccharide)

A

A multi-branched polysaccharide that consists of many alpha glucose joined through a condensation reaction, linked by both 1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic bond

Highly branch which makes it compact and useful for energy storage

High amount of branches provides more free ends which allows glycogen to be broken down quickly for glucose in respiration

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57
Q

Solute Potentials

A

The concentration of solute particles

High solute concentration = Less potential energy

The higher the solute concentration, the lower the water potential, the more negative the value is

Water moves from high to low water potential

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58
Q

Difference with a Conjugated and Non-conjugated Protein

A

Conjugated: Combined an inorganic component called a prosthetic group

Non-conjugated: Made of polypeptide chain that is not associated with other chemical groups

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59
Q

Steroids Structure

A

4 linked carbon rings

3 cyclohexane rings and 1 cyclopentane ring

17 carbon atoms in total

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60
Q

Triglycerides Function

A

Energy Storage: Triglycerides are highly stable so energy is not lost over time, highly reduced so release twice as much energy, and insoluble in water so they remain localized

Thermal insulation: Triglycerides are poor thermal conductors therefore trap heat and maintain internal body temperature, with the thicker the layer of adipose tissue the increased retention of heat which helps mammals who live in cold environments such as Gavia Artica and Pusa Hispida

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61
Q

Differences between Carbohydrates and Lipids (Glycogen and Triglycerides)

A

Carbs are stored in the liver as glycogen
Lipids are stored in adipose tissue as fat

Carbs are short term energy storage
Lipids are long term energy storage

Carbs contain less energy per gram than lipids
Lipids contain more energy per gram than carbs

Carbs release energy fast and easily digested
Lipids release energy slow and less digested

Carbs needs less oxygen to release energy
Lipids needs more oxygen to release energy

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62
Q

Pressure Potentials

A

Pressure exerted by water in a system to stop the flow of water down its gradient

Positive Pressure: Pressure in system is greater than environment

Negative Pressure: Pressure in System is less than environment

The higher the pressure, the higher the water potential, the more positive the value is

Water moves from high to low pressure

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63
Q

Difference with Cis and Trans Isomers

A

Cis is healthy, natural, and found in nature
Trans is unhealthy, rare, and artificially made

The hydrogen atoms in Cis are on the same side of the double carbon bond
The hydrogen atoms in Trans are on opposite sides of the double carbon bond

In Cis, the double bond causes a kink in the fatty acid chain
In Trans, the double bond doesn’t cause a kink in the fatty acid chain

Cis has lower melting point
Trans has higher melting point`

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64
Q

Epigenetic Tags

A

Chemical modifications to the DNA and histones which regulate gene expression

These modifications change the phenotype without changing the genotype which affects how cells read the genes

Epigenesis is essential for normal development and is associated with aging and various diseases including cancer

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65
Q

Autosomal Dominant

A

Appears almost in both males and females equally

All affected individuals must have an affected parent

Trait doesn’t skip generation

Unaffected parents must produce unaffected offspring

Affected parents can have unaffected child

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66
Q

Differences with Simple and Facilitated Diffusion

A

Simple Diffusion moves directly through the phospholipid bilayer while facilitated diffusion doesn’t move directly through

Simple diffusion doesn’t involve a channel protein while facilitated diffusion uses channel proteins

Simple diffusion transports hydrophobic molecules while facilitated diffusion transports hydrophilic molecules

Simple diffusion is slower and facilitated diffusion is faster

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67
Q

Homologous Chromosomes

A

Pairs of non-identical chromosomes in a diploid cell that are inherited from parents. They have same length, gene sequence, centromere positions, and same gene locus. They only differ from each other by alleles

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68
Q

Metaphase Events

A

Nuclear membrane disappears completely

Microtubules grow and attach to centromere’s kinetochores, and move them to align both sister chromatids towards the equator of the cell

Each sister chromatid faces a pole, and the spindle fibers are fully developed

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69
Q

Rubisco and Function

A

Has a rounded shape that is tertiary, which provides three dimensional active site where a substrate can bind

The prosthetic group can be a metal ion

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70
Q

Translation

A

The synthesis of polypeptides with a specific amino acid sequence that is determined by their base sequence on the mRNA molecule

Occurs in cytoplasm and requires tRNA, mRNA and ribosomes

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71
Q

DNA Methylation

A

The substitution of a hydrogen with a methyl group in a Cytosine base of the promotor region

The methyl group is an epigenetic tag that affects how tightly the DNA is packed

DNA methylation causes DNA to remain tightly packed which silences the gene by inhibiting the binding of transcription factors thus repressing gene transcription

72
Q

Exocytosis

A

The process by which macromolecules leave the cell

Vesicles from RER transport proteins to Golgi apparatus

These Vesicles undergo modification from the Golgi and get repackaged and sent into the plasma membrane

The vesicles carrying the protein fuse with the membrane expelling the content outside the cell

The membrane then goes back to its original state

73
Q

Why are Some DNA Regions Highly Conserved

A

They have slower lates of mutation

Control gene expression

Code for proteins that are vital for life

Provide structural stability

74
Q

Differences with Coding and Non-Coding RNA

A

Coding is identical to RNA
Non-coding is complementary to RNA

Coding serves as a reference for mRNA formation
Non-coding doesn’t participate in protein synthesis

Coding is 5’ to 3’
Non-coding is 3’ to 5’

75
Q

Kidney Structure

A

Blood enters through the renal artery and drained through the renal vein

Surrounded by a tough capsule, outer region is cortex and inner is medulla

Central region is the pelvis which leads to the ureter

76
Q

Chemical Properties of Carbon

A

Has 4 valence electrons

Can form 4 covalent bonds

Carbon to carbon bonds are extremely strong and stable

Can form long, ringed, and branched chain of carbon

Can form single, double, or triple bonds

77
Q

Endocytosis

A

The process by which macromolecules enter the cell

The membrane pulls inwards and seals back on itself forming a vesicle

The vesicle pinches off the plasma membrane

Inside of plasma membrane becomes outside of vesicle membrane, and vice versa

The vesicle enters the cytoplasm and carries the content anywhere in the cell

78
Q

Histone Modification

A

Histones have tails that determine how tightly the DNA is packaged. DNA methylation has a positive charge, which with the negative charge of the tail, makes DNA more coiled and therefore reduces transcription

When acetyl group is added, due to its negative charge, it repels the DNA and it becomes less tightly coiled and opens up the nucleosome therefore increasing transcription

79
Q

Loop of Henle

A

Has an ascending and descending limb

Ascending limb transports NaCl by diffusion and active transport out of the loop into the tissue fluid which increases solute concentration in tissue fluid and decreases solute concentration of the fluid in ascending limb itself

Descending limb has water move into the tissue fluid by osmosis, and NaCl diffuse from the tissue fluid into the loop

Fluid becomes more concentrated at the bottom of the loop, and animals that need to conserve water have very long loops of Henle to allow for more water to be reabsorbed

80
Q

Process of Transcription

A

RNAP binds to promotor site which separates DNA into 2 strands, and exposing DNA bases for pairing

Only 1 strand will be used for replication

RNAP slides along the template strand and synthesizes the new RNA strand by complementary base pairing

A = U, C = G

RNAP then links the nucleotides together through covalent bonds, then ends transcription when it reaches terminator region of the gene

RNA breaks away from the DNA template strand, and DNA strands rejoin to form a double helix, then the RNA strand diffuses through the nuclear pore into the cytoplasm

81
Q

Response to Thirst

A

Osmoreceptor cells in the hypothalamus detect the high osmolarity in the blood plasma and produce ADH, which gets released from the posterior pituitary

The ADH binds to receptors in the plasma membrane of cells in the collecting ducts which causes the cell to transport vesicles containing aquaporins towards the membrane and fuse with it, thus inserting aquaporins into the membrane

With more aquaporins embedded, more aquaporin channels open and increases the amount of water to passively diffuse by osmosis into the medulla, which produces small columns of concentrated urine

82
Q

Explain Primary Protein Structure

A

A sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide molecule.

It is specific, predictable, and repeatable.

Its precision determines the 3D structure and function

83
Q

Significance of Adhesion

A

Water is attracted to the cellulose cell wall of the xylem and sticks to it to rise against gravity.

Helps bring water upwards from the soil into the roots.

84
Q

Explain Secondary Protein Structure

A

The polypeptide chains are coiled or pleated into different shapes:

Alpha Helix: A helical 3D shape

Beta-pleated Sheet: Parallel sections of polypeptide chains that run in opposite directions

85
Q

In the Absence of Lactose

A

Repressor protein binds to operator region which inhibits transcription which stops production of enzymes

86
Q

Crossing 2 Homo and Hetero

A

Crossing 2 Homozygous, ratio is 1:0

Crossing 2 Heterozygous, ratio is 3:1

Crossing hetero with homo recessive, ratio is 1:1

87
Q

Interphase Stages

A

G1: Where the cell grows and duplicates organelles and synthesizes proteins

S: Where DNA is replicated

G2: Where the cell continues to grow and make proteins needed for metabolic reactions in mitosis

88
Q

Glycoprotein / Conjugated Protein Location and Function

A

Location: Peripheral proteins but with carbohydrates called oligosaccharides attached, hydrophilic

Function: Cell recognition, identifies self and non-self cells, forms a layer with glycolipid called glycocalyx which binds cells together and prevents the tissue from falling apart

89
Q

Peripheral Protein Location and Function

A

Location: Bound on the membrane surface, hydrophilic

Function: Cell to cell communication

90
Q

Lions and Tigers

A

In lions paternal imprinting favors larger offspring while maternal favors smaller offspring

When a male lion and female tiger reproduce they make a liger - the biggest of the cat species

When a female lion and male tiger reproduce they make a tigon - a cat that is about the same size as its parents

91
Q

Response to Hydrated

A

ADH levels decrease, thus the walls of the collecting ducts allow less water to pass into the blood thus less water is conserved by the body, which produces dilute urine

92
Q

Independent Assortment

A

In Metaphase I, bivalents line up randomly and independently of each other on the equator

Since they line up in any orientation on the equator, they segregate randomly

The possible combination of gametes depends on the number of homologous pairs and is calculated using 2^n,where n is the haploid number of chromosomes

93
Q

Differences in Blood Concentrations between Renal Artery and Vein

A

Wastes: High in artery and low in vein as it’s excreted in urine

Oxygen: High in artery and low in vein as it’s used in cell respiration by kidney tissue

Glucose: High in artery and low in vein as it’s used in cell respiration by kidney tissue

Drugs / Toxins: High in artery and low in vein as it’s excreted in urine

Carbon Dioxide: Low in artery and high in vein as it’s produced by cell respiration and excretion of kidney cells

Ions: Vary in both as it depends on amount of water reabsorbed in the collecting duct in response to ADH

94
Q

Features of a Non-Competitive Inhibitor

A

Has a different structure to the substrate

Binds to the allosteric site of the enzyme, therefore changing the enzyme shape and preventing substrates from binding to the active site

Increasing substrate concentration won’t help

Rate will never reach maximum

95
Q

PCR Requirements

A

A sample of DNA

Taq Polymerase: A thermostable DNA polymerase that is capable of joining together tens of thousands of complementary nucleotides to form new DNA (extracted from Thermus Aquaticus, a bacteria that lives in hot springs therefore can handle heat)

Primers: Short lengths of RNA that attach to separated strands of DNA, also provide starting points for replication

Nucleotides: A T C G which are building blocks

Thermal Cycler: A computer controlled machine which cycles through high and low temperatures over a period of time to control replication

96
Q

Benign VS Malignant

A

Slow pace
Rapid and uncontrolled pace

Do not spread from site of origin
Detach and spread throughout the body

Unlikely to cause harm
Can cause harm and made of the same type of cell as the primary tumor

Not life-threatening
Life-threatening, known as cancer

97
Q

ETC in Respiration VS Photosynthesis

A

Respiration happens in inner mitochondrial mb
Photosynthesis happens in thylakoid mb in chloroplast

Respiration has electrons donated by RedNAD and RedFAD at the beginning of the ETC
Photosynthesis has electrons donated by chlorophyll a in PSII or water

Respiration has RedNAD and RedFAD oxidized
Photosynthesis has NADP get reduced

Respiration has Oxygen as the final electron acceptor
Photosynthesis has NADP as final electron acceptor

98
Q

Oogenesis Unequal Cytokinesis

A

Oogonia grows into primary oocyte

Primary oocyte undergoes Meiosis I which results in unequal cytokinesis

A large secondary oocyte forms which contains most of the cytoplasm which will become the mature egg, but the other daughter cell (polar body) has very little cytoplasm and eventually degenerates

99
Q

Fibrous Protein Features

A

Long and narrow

Structural role

Insoluble in water

Repetitive amino acid sequence

100
Q

Control of Degradation of mRNA

A

mRNA’s life depends on the poly-A tail added to the 3’ end of the mRNA during post transcriptional modification

The shorter the poly-A tail, the less likely the mRNA will be translated and the more likely it will be degraded

The stability of mRNA molecules can be regulated by RNA-binding proteins, which can stabilize the tail to extend its lifespan. However, others recruit enzymes which degrade the tail and lead to faster breakdown

Hormones and other chemical signals can influence mRNA degradation rates aswell

101
Q

Water Movement in a Hypotonic Solution

A

Pressure potential increases as more water is entering the cell, it causes the cell to become turgid

Solute potential decreases as due to the amount of water in the cell, the solutes become diluted which means the value becomes lower

102
Q

CRISPR Abbreviation

A

Clustered: The repeats are grouped together in DNA sequences

Regularly Interspaced: The repeats are separated consistently by spacers

Short: Each repeat is a relatively short sequence of DNA nucleotides

Palindromic: Each sequence has parts which can be read the same forwards and backwards

Repeats: The same base sequence occurs several times in one part of the genome

103
Q

Characteristics of Enzymes

A

Enzyme is a globular protein that acts as a biological catalyst

Enzymes are three dimensional with a hydrophilic R group on the outside to ensure solubility

Enzymes speed up a metabolic reaction

Enzymes are made of living things

Enzymes have specific shape and chemical properties to allow binding of specific substrate

104
Q

Respiration Chemiosmosis VS Photosynthesis Chemiosmosis

A

Respiration involves ETC in cristae where ATP synthase is located
Photosynthesis involves ETC in thylakoid mb where ATP synthase is located

Respiration has energy pump protons into intermembrane space
Photosynthesis has energy pump protons into thylakoid space

Respiration’s protons come from matrix
Photosynthesis’ protons come from stoma

105
Q

Steroids

A

Contain a fused ring structure synthesized from cholesterol, and are hydrophilic which allows them to pass through the phospholipid bilayer

106
Q

Adaptations of the Chloroplast for Photosynthesis

A

Thylakoid Membranes: Provide a large surface area for the attachment of photosynthetic pigments, electron carriers and enzymes

Thylakoid Spaces: Have a small volume for the accumulation of protons and establishment of the gradient

Grana: Contains proteins network that holds the pigments allowing for maximum light absorption

Stoma Fluid: Holds all of the enzymes needed to perform light independent reaction

Lamellae: Connect Grana which maximizes photosynthesis efficiency

107
Q

The Fundamental Laws of Inheritance

A

The Law of Segregation: Pairs of alleles of a gene separate during gamete formation

The Law of Independent Assortment: Two or more pairs of alleles segregate independently of each other as a result of meiosis in Metaphase I

The Law of Dominance: An organism with alternate forms of a gene will express the dominant form

108
Q

Integral Protein Location and Function

A

Location: Penetrate the phospholipid bilayer, amphipathic

Function: Pumps for active transport and channels for facilitated diffusion

109
Q

Lac Operon

A

A length of DNA that codes for the enzyme which is responsible for the transport and metabolism of lactose in the bacterium

110
Q

Metaphase I Events

A

The nuclear membrane is fully broken down

The paired up homologous chromosomes line up at the equator randomly and independently of each other

The spindle microtubules attach to the centromeres of the homologous chromosomes

111
Q

Structure of Ribosomes

A

Made of proteins and rRNA

Has large and small subunit, large subunit has three binding sites for tRNA molecules (A, P, E). Small subunit has a binding site for mRNA

112
Q

Physical Properties of Water

A

Buoyancy: An upward force exerted by a fluid on an object. (Depends on density of object)

Viscosity: Resistance to flow (Solutes can increase viscosity)

Thermal Conductivity: Ability of water to pass heat (Increases up util boiling point)

Specific Heat Capacity: The amount of energy it takes to increase the temperature of 1g of water by 1C

113
Q

Properties of Water

A

Cohesive Properties: Can stick to each other.

Adhesive Properties: Can stick to surfaces.

Solvent Properties: Can dissolve hydrophilic molecules easily.

Thermal Properties: Hydrogen bonds require a large amount of heat energy to break.

114
Q

Isotonic Effect in General

A

Dynamic Equilibrium

115
Q

Importance of Hydrogen Bonding in Water

A

Cohesion in water helps transport water in the xylem.

Adhesion between water and cell walls helps defy gravity to travel up xylem.

Thermal property is as much energy is required to break the hydrogen bond.

Solvent property of water with hydrophilic molecules.

116
Q

Inheritance Diseases Examples

A

Huntington - Autosomal Dominant

Cystic Fibrosis and Phenylketonuria - Autosomal Recessive

Sickle Cell Anemia - Autosomal Co-dominance

Hemophilia and Red-green Color Blindness - Sex-linked Recessive

117
Q

Discontinuous VS Continuous Variation

A

Results in limited amount of phenotypes and no in-betweens
Results in range of phenotypes with in-betweens

Tend to be qualitative
Tend to be quantitative

Controlled by one gene
Controlled by multiple genes

Unaffected by environment
Affected by environment

Shown in a bar graph with separate bars
Bell shaped curve

Example is human blood group
Example is skin color

118
Q

Autosomal Recessive

A

Appears almost in both males and females equally

Unaffected parents can have unaffected offspring

Trait skips generation

Affected parents must produce affected offspring

119
Q

Gel Electrophesis

A

Separating DNA strands according to their size

Involves using a gel plate containing agarose gel, immersed into a deep tank full of buffer solution called the gel electrophesis tank. Electrons are attached at each end of the gel so a current can be passed through it

120
Q

Unlinked Genes

A

Genes found on separate chromosome pair

Chromosomes segregate independently due to meiosis

Recombination is due to crossing over and independent assortment

Gametes will include parental chromosomes and recombinants, which take up about 50% of the offspring

Represented as AaBb

121
Q

Induced Fit Model

A

Enzyme can bind to multiple substrates

The enzyme’s active site doesn’t have a rigid shape and isn’t complementary to the substrate’s shape either

Active site and substrate change their shape slightly in order to have a perfect fit, forming enzyme-substrate complex

Products are released, while enzyme returns to original shape once the reaction is done

122
Q

Mitosis VS Meiosis

A

Takes place in body cells
Takes place in germ cells

Produces body cells
Produces gametes

Has 1 division
Has 2 divisions

2 identical diploid daughter cells are formed
4 different haploid daughter cells are formed

No crossing over
Crossing over

No variation
Variation

123
Q

Types of Genetic Code

A

Linear: Read in one direction

Degenerate: More than one codon for an amino acid

Universal: The same base sequence always codes for the same amino acid

Punctuation: Start and Stop codons which initiate and end translation

124
Q

Genome, Transcriptome and Proteome

A

Genome is all the genetic information in a cell or organism, and provides the starting point for gene expression

Transcriptome is the entire set of RNAs transcribed in a cell, and varies based off cellular needs

Proteome is the entire set of proteins produced by a cell, and is based on the transcriptome as proteins are synthesized from mRNA. Proteins constantly turn over due to synthesis, degradation and post-transcriptional modification

125
Q

Importance of Random Motion

A

Catalysis only happens when substrate is in liquid, so it needs random motion

Random motion increases the chances of collision between substrate and active site of enzyme

126
Q

Benefits of CRISPR-Cas9 Gene Editing

A

Precise as it cuts DNA at a specific location with high accuracy

Versatile as it can be used for various editing tasks such as inserting deleting or modifying genes

Efficient as it works quickly and easily compared to other gene editing tools

127
Q

Process of Gel Electrophesis

A

A sample of DNA is extracted and amplified using PCR

DNA gets cut into different lengths and placed in the agarose gel at the negative electrode

A fluorescent marker is added so fragments can be seen

An electrical current is passed across the gel, thus making negatively charged DNA move towards the positive side, with the distance they move depending on their mass

128
Q

Role of tRNA

A

Carries amino acids to the large subunit of the ribosome and matches them to the coded mRNA nucleotides to be assembled into proteins

129
Q

How do Chromosomes Move

A

Kinetochores and Microtubules

Kinetochores are protein complexes that form on the centromere during cell division, and provide an attachment point for spindle fibers with the centromere region

Microtubules are hollow cylinders that can rapidly assemble and disassemble at the centrosome

Microtubules and Kinetochores work together by lengthening and shortening the microtubules to move chromosomes during cell division

130
Q

Functional Requirements of Highly Conserved Sequences

A

Highly conserved sequences probably code for essential proteins that are critical for organisms across species, and any slight change in these sequences could be detrimental which explains their strong conservation throughout evolution

131
Q

Solubility of Molecules

A

Glucose: Soluble

Amino Acids: Depending on R group

Oxygen: Soluble due to small size

NaCl: Soluble

Fats: Insoluble

132
Q

Explain Tertiary Protein Structure

A

3D because of protein folding, and is stabilized by intramolecular bonds that form between amino acids’ R groups.

Amino acids include:

Hydrogen Bonds
Disulfide Bonds
Ionic Bonds
Hydrophobic Interactions

133
Q

A, P, and E Sites

A

A Site: Aminoacyl site, where the new tRNA carrying an amino acid binds which adds amino acid to the growing polypeptide chain

P Site: Peptidyl site, which holds the tRNA during peptide bond formation

E Site: Exist site, where tRNA that lost their amino acid leaves the ribosome

134
Q

Process of Translation

A

Consists of 3 stages: Initiation, Elongation, and Termination

Initiation is where the mRNA binds to the small subunit of the ribosome at the 5’ end, and slides across the mRNA to the start codon. The tRNA binds to the small subunit of the ribosome and binds to mRNA through complementary base pairing. Large ribosome then binds to smaller one.

Elongation is where the second tRNA pairs with the next codon at the A site. The two amino acids join by a peptide bond. This causes a shift, making the first tRNA go to the E site and exiting the ribosome, and the second tRNA to go to the P site. Another tRNA pairs with the mRNA at the A site, and the process continues and the polypeptide becomes longer until a stop codon is reached.

Termination is when a stop codon is reached, which triggers the termination of translation as no tRNA have a complementary anticodon. A protein called the release factor fills up the A site to forcefully shift the last tRNA into the E site thus releasing it, and the mRNA detaches from the small sub-unit, and the small and large sub-unit separate

135
Q

Budding Unequal Cytokinesis

A

A small bud sticks out from the parent yeast cell

The cytoplasm and organelles are unequally distributed, with the bud receiving a smaller portion compared to the parent cell

Over time, the bud grows and separates from the parent cell and becomes a new independent yeast cell

136
Q

Kidney in Sleep, Vigorous Exercise, and Wakeful Rest

A

Sleep: Moderate to maintain renal function

Vigorous Exercise: Moderate and decreased slightly as blood is redirected to active tissues

Wakeful Rest: Moderate to ensure filtration and regulation of blood composition

137
Q

Significance of Solvent

A

Water acts as a medium for all metabolic reactions in the cytoplasm.

Water acts as a transport medium in plants and animals.

138
Q

Leading and Lagging Strand in Replication

A

In the leading strand, the DNA Polymerase III moves towards the replication fork

In the lagging strand, the DNA Polymerase III moves away from the replication fork and synthesizes discontinuously in pieces called Okazaki Fragments. The lagging strand continuously needs new primers for the synthesis of each Okazaki Fragment

139
Q

Water Physical Properties Consequences on Organisms

A

Buoyancy: Helps organisms use water as their habitat as they can float without using energy

Viscosity: High viscosity can make it more challenging for aquatic animals to swim efficiently

Thermal Conductivity: Allows warm-blooded animals to have insulating properties and remove excess heat

Specific Heat Capacity: Helps organisms use water as their habitat as water doesn’t change as easily as air does

140
Q

Reprogramming

A

The erasing of all pre-existing epigenetic tags before gametes fuse to produce a zygote, which ensures that the early embryo can form every type of cell in the body

Some epigenetics do not get removed, and is known as transgenerational epigenetic inheritance, with the genes themselves being imprinted genes which allow for phenotypic change in offspring which can be easily reversed

141
Q

Structural and Function

A

A fibrous protein made from 3 polypeptide chains held closely by covalent and hydrogen bonds to form a triple helix

Forms the main structure in tissues such as skin, blood vessels and ligaments

Quaternary

142
Q

Telophase I Events

A

Spindle microtubules disintegrate, and each chromosome from the homologous pair is found at opposite poles

A nuclear membrane starts reforming around each daughter nucleus

The membrane divides through Cytokinesis I

Chromosomes uncondensed and uncoil

143
Q

Explain Quaternary Protein Structure

A

Two or more polypeptide chains join to form a protein

144
Q

Skeletal Muscles in Sleep, Vigorous Exercise, and Wakeful Rest

A

Sleep: Low due to inactivity

Vigorous Exercise: High to meet the increased demand for oxygen and nutrients required for muscle contraction

Wakeful Rest: Moderate, reflecting lower activity level compared to exercise

145
Q

Sex-linked Recessive

A

Common in males

If a female shows a trait, then all her sons and father must

An unaffected mother can have affected son if she is a carrier

146
Q

Simplest Unit of Carbohydrates, Fats and Proteins

A

Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides

Fats: Fatty Acids and Triglycerides

Proteins: Amino Acids

147
Q

Anaphase I Events

A

Homologous chromosomes pairs are pulled to opposite poles thus halving the chromosome number

Centromeres do not split

148
Q

Thermoregulation Mechanisms when Hot

A

Sweating: Sweat glands produce sweat that evaporates from the skin thus removing heat through evaporation

Vasodilation: Blood vessels in the skin dilate, which allows for more blood to flow to remove heat

Hairs Relax: Hairs lie flat against the skin, minimizing trapped air and promoting heat loss

Metabolic Rate Decreases: Thyroid gland produces less thyroxin which reduces body’s metabolic activity

149
Q

Water Movement in a Hypertonic Solution

A

Pressure potential decreases as water is leaving the cell and the cell becomes flaccid and loses turgor pressure

Solute potential increases as due to the absence of water, the solute concentration becomes more concentrated

150
Q

Hypertonic Effect in Plant Cell and Reason

A

Plasmolysis as the vacuole gradually shrinks from the cell wall and becomes flaccid, along with the membrane pulling away from the cell wall and making the cell plasmolyzed

151
Q

Significance of Cohesion

A

Cohesion is important for water to move up xylem vessels in plants.

Cohesion creates surface tension which allows some insects to move on water’s surface.

152
Q

Passive Transport Features

A

Moves from high to low concentration

Substances move across a concentration gradient

Doesn’t require ATP or a protein pump

Equilibrium is reached

Examples include simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis

153
Q

Meiosis

A

Reduction division in which the chromosome number is halved from diploid o haploid, resulting in genetically different cells

154
Q

What do Glycogen and Starch Have in Common

A

Both storage polysaccharides made of alpha glucose unit joined by glycosidic bond through a condensation reaction

Insoluble

Unreactive and not used in reactions inside the cell

155
Q

Hypertonic Effect in Animal Cell and Reason

A

Shrinks and shrivels because the volume of the cytoplasm drops

156
Q

Importance of Osmoregulation in Animals

A

If water uptake is excessive, hydrostatic pressure can stretch the plasma membrane to the point of bursting

If water loss is excessive, the cell will shrink and die as water is an essential for the cell’s cytoplasm

157
Q

Cytokinesis in Plant Cell

A

Vesicles that come from the Golgi move to the center of the cell, and fuse together to form a cell plate. The cell plate continues to develop until it joins with the cell’s plasma membrane which completes the division of the cytoplasm, then both daughters secrete cellulose to form their new cell walls.

158
Q

Insulin and Lowering Blood Glucose

A

Beta cells in the pancreas produce insulin in response to high blood sugar to lower it

Insulin converts glucose into fatty acids for storage, stores glucose as glycogen, and increases respiration

159
Q

Hypotonic Effect in Animal Cell and Reason

A

Swells and bursts as animal cell doesn’t have a cell wall to support the high water pressure

160
Q

End-Product Inhibition

A

The product of the last reaction of the metabolic pathway inhibits the enzyme that catalyzes the first reaction of the pathway

An example of Negative Feedback Inhibition

Can be reversible once concentration of end product decreases

161
Q

Anaphase Events

A

Kinetochores use spindle fibers to split the centromere of each sister chromatid, thus pulling them to opposite poles

Each sister chromatid becomes a chromosome

162
Q

Globular Protein Features

A

Rounded

Functional role

Soluble in water

Irregular amino acid sequence

163
Q

Hypertonic Effect in General

A

Water moves by osmosis from low solute concentration (inside) to high solute concentration (outside)

164
Q

Difference between Anabolism and Catabolism

A

Anabolism is the synthesis of a complex molecule from simple molecules
Catabolism is the breakdown of a complex molecule into simpler molecules

Anabolism involves condensation reactions where H2O is released
Catabolism involves hydrolysis reactions where H2O is required

Energy is required in Anabolism
Energy is released in Catabolism

165
Q

Photosynthesis VS Respiration

A

Captures energy and stores it in sugars
Release energy stored in sugars

Occurs in chloroplast
Occurs in mitochondria

CO2 and H2O are reactants
C6H12O6 and O2 are reactants

C6H12O6 and O2 are products
CO2 and H2O are products

Takes place in autotrophs
Takes place in all living things

166
Q

Advantages of Structured Array of Different Pigment Molecules in a System

A

Enhanced light absorption since a photosystem combines different pigments it maximizes light absorption

Broad wavelength absorption, each pigment has a narrow absorption range and by combining various pigments it’ll allow photosystems to capture a broader range of wavelengths

Efficient energy transfer, as the arrangement of pigments facilitate energy transfer between them. When a pigment absorbs a photon and becomes excited, it passes onto each other until it reaches the reaction center which increases efficiency for photosynthesis

167
Q

Properties of Monosaccharides

A

Chemical Stability: They have strong covalent bonds and therefore are very stable, with the presence of an -OH allowing for hydrogen bonding

Solubility: They are soluble in water with each molecule having several -OH molecules that are used in hydrogen bonding

Energy Source: They give out energy when oxidized through respiration, with one oxidation giving 36 ATP

168
Q

Crossing Over and Process

A

Exchange of alleles between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes

In Prophase I, homologous chromosomes undergo synapsis thus forming a bivalent

A cut called SSB (Single Stranded Break) is made at the same part of DNA of each of the non-sister chromatids

Each non-sister chromatid re-joins with its homologous partner where they can then exchange genetic material through the chiasmata.

The chromatids formed after crossing over are called recombinant chromatids

169
Q

Usage of CRISPR Good Way

A

Scientists can make their own RNA that Cas9 can cut, using this, they can:

Insert a new piece of DNA
Remove unwanted DNA
Make slight changes to DNA

170
Q

Role of Enzyme in Metabolism

A

Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions, with each chemical reaction being interdependent on one another

They usually form pathways which are organized into chains or cycles

Each chemical reaction in the pathway is unique and is controlled by a specific enzyme, and because of enzyme specificity, living organisms require many different enzymes in order to control metabolism

171
Q

Significant of Thermal

A

Cells can withstand a lot of heat energy release from their metabolic reactions without boiling away.

172
Q

Transcription and Translation in Prokaryotes VS Eukaryotes

A

DNA is found in the cytoplasm
DNA is found in the nucleus separated from the cytoplasm

Both transcription and translation take place in the cytoplasm
Transcription takes place in the nucleus and translation in the cytoplasm

Transcription and translation are continuous
Transcription and translation are discontinuous

No modifications occur
Post transcriptional modifications occur

Genes do not have introns
Genes have non-coding regions called introns which are removed to produce mature mRNA

173
Q

Variation in Molecular Motion of Substrates and Enzymes

A

Usually, the substrate is smaller than the active site so it moves more than the enzyme

Some substrates are very large and don’t move a lot, therefore enzymes move in relation to substrate

Some enzymes are embedded into the membrane and can’t move, in this case the substrate needs to do all the movement

174
Q

Why do Transplant Organs need to be Bathed in Isotonic Solutions

A

To prevent damage to the cells in the organ

To have the same solute concentration as the cells in the organ

To avoid cells from shrinking or swelling due to loss or gain of water by osmosis

175
Q

In the Presence of Lactose

A

Lactose is directly converted to allolactose, which binds to repressor protein and distorts its shape to prevent it from binding to the operator region of the DNA, thus allowing transcription of genes

176
Q

Advantages of End-Product Inhibition

A

If there is too much of an end product, the whole metabolic pathway stops working and less of the end product is produced

When levels of end product decrease, the inhibitor can release and allow the metabolic pathway to work and create end product again

177
Q

Isotonic Effect in Plant Cell and Reason

A

Becomes flaccid as the plasma membrane is not pressed tightly against the cell wall

Biology (25 decks)

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