Punctuation Rules Flashcards
Spacing With Punctuation
Rule 1
With a computer, use only one space following periods, commas, semicolons, colons, exclamation points, question marks, and quotation marks. The space needed after these punctuation marks is proportioned automatically.
Rule 2
Use no spaces on either side of a hyphen.
[For more rules about hyphens, click on Hyphens.]
Example:
We borrowed twenty-three sheets of paper.
NOTE: For spacing with dashes, click on Dashes.
Periods
Rule 1. Use a period at the end of a complete sentence that is a statement.
Example: I know him well.
Rule 2. If the last item in the sentence is an abbreviation that ends in a period, do not follow it with another period.
Incorrect: This is Alice Smith, M.D..
Correct: This is Alice Smith, M.D.
Correct: Please shop, cook, etc. We will do the laundry.
Rule 3. Question marks and exclamation points replace and eliminate periods at the end of a sentence.
Commas
Commas and periods are the most frequently used punctuation marks. Commas customarily indicate a brief pause; they’re not as final as periods.
Rule 1. Use commas to separate words and word groups in a simple series of three or more items.
Example: My estate goes to my husband, son, daughter-in-law, and nephew.
Note: When the last comma in a series comes before and or or (after daughter-in-law in the above example), it is known as the Oxford comma. Most newspapers and magazines drop the Oxford comma in a simple series, apparently feeling it’s unnecessary. However, omission of the Oxford comma can sometimes lead to misunderstandings.
Example: We had coffee, cheese and crackers and grapes.
Adding a comma after crackers makes it clear that cheese and crackers represents one dish. In cases like this, clarity demands the Oxford comma.
We had coffee, cheese and crackers, and grapes.
Fiction and nonfiction books generally prefer the Oxford comma. Writers must decide Oxford or no Oxford and not switch back and forth, except when omitting the Oxford comma could cause confusion as in the cheese and crackers example.
Rule 2. Use a comma to separate two adjectives when the order of the adjectives is interchangeable.
Example: He is a strong, healthy man.
We could also say healthy, strong man.
Example: We stayed at an expensive summer resort.
We would not say summer expensive resort, so no comma.
Another way to determine if a comma is needed is to mentally put and between the two adjectives. If the result still makes sense, add the comma. In the examples above, a strong and healthy man makes sense, but an expensive and summer resort does not.
Rule 3a. Many inexperienced writers run two independent clauses together by using a comma instead of a period. This results in the dreaded run-on sentence or, more technically, a comma splice.
Incorrect: He walked all the way home, he shut the door.
There are several simple remedies:
Correct: He walked all the way home. He shut the door.
Correct: After he walked all the way home, he shut the door.
Correct: He walked all the way home, and he shut the door.
Rule 3b. In sentences where two independent clauses are joined by connectors such as and, or, but, etc., put a comma at the end of the first clause.
Incorrect: He walked all the way home and he shut the door.
Correct: He walked all the way home, and he shut the door.
Incorrect: Did he walk all the way home or did he take a bus?
Correct: Did he walk all the way home, or did he take a bus?
Some writers omit the comma if the clauses are both quite short:
Example: I paint and he writes.
Rule 3c. If the subject does not appear in front of the second verb, a comma is generally unnecessary.
Example: Morty thought quickly but still did not answer correctly.
But sometimes a comma in this situation is necessary to avoid confusion.
Confusing: I saw that she was busy and prepared to leave.
Clearer with comma: I saw that she was busy, and prepared to leave.
Without a comma, the reader is liable to think that “she” was the one who was prepared to leave.
Rule 3d. A comma is placed before the word because only if needed for clarity.
Example: The twins attended Tulane because their parents went there.
This sentence clearly conveys that the main reason the twins went to Tulane was because their parents attended Tulane.
The twins didn’t attend Tulane because their parents went there.
This sentence is ambiguous. We’re not sure whether they didn’t go to Tulane because they wanted to go somewhere other than where their parents went to college, or whether the twins did go to Tulane but for reasons other than that their parents went there.
The twins didn’t attend Tulane, because their parents went there.
With the comma before because, the sentence more clearly conveys that the twins desired a college other than the one their parents attended.
Rule 4a. When starting a sentence with a dependent clause, use a comma after it.
Example: If you are not sure about this, let me know now.
Follow the same policy with introductory phrases.
Example: Having finally arrived in town, we went shopping.
However, if the introductory phrase is clear and brief (three or four words), the comma is optional.
Example: When in town we go shopping.
But always add a comma if it would avoid confusion.
Example: Last Sunday, evening classes were canceled. (The comma prevents a misreading.)
When an introductory phrase begins with a preposition, a comma may not be necessary even if the phrase contains more than three or four words.
Example: Into the sparkling crystal ball he gazed.
If such a phrase contains more than one preposition, a comma may be used unless a verb immediately follows the phrase.
Examples:
Between your house on Main Street and my house on Grand Avenue, the mayor’s mansion stands proudly.
Between your house on Main Street and my house on Grand Avenue is the mayor’s mansion.
Rule 4b. But often a comma is unnecessary when the sentence starts with an independent clause followed by a dependent clause.
Example: Let me know now if you are not sure about this.
Rule 5a. Use commas to set off nonessential words, clauses, and phrases (see Who, That, Which, Rule 2b).
Incorrect: Jill who is my sister shut the door.
Correct: Jill, who is my sister, shut the door.
Incorrect: The actor knowing it was late hurried home.
Correct: The actor, knowing it was late, hurried home.
In the preceding examples, note the comma after sister and late. Nonessential words, clauses, and phrases that occur midsentence must be enclosed by commas. The closing comma is called an appositive comma. Many writers forget to add this important comma. Following are two instances of the need for an appositive comma with one or more nouns.
Incorrect: My best friend, Joe arrived.
Correct: My best friend, Joe, arrived.
Incorrect: The three items, a book, a pen, and paper were on the table.
Correct: The three items, a book, a pen, and paper, were on the table.
Rule 5b. If something or someone is sufficiently identified, the description that follows is considered nonessential and should be surrounded by commas.
Examples:
Freddy, who has a limp, was in an auto accident.
If we already know which Freddy is meant, the description is not essential.
The boy who has a limp was in an auto accident.
We do not know which boy is meant without further description; therefore,no commas are used.
This leads to a persistent problem. Look at the following sentence:
Example: My brother Bill is here.
Now, see how adding two commas changes that sentence’s meaning:
Example: My brother, Bill, is here.
Careful writers and readers understand that the first sentence means I have more than one brother. The commas in the second sentence mean that Bill is my only brother.
Why? In the first sentence, Bill is essential information: it identifies which of my two (or more) brothers I’m speaking of. This is why no commas enclose Bill.
In the second sentence, Bill is nonessential information—whom else but Bill could I mean?—hence the commas.
Comma misuse is nothing to take lightly. It can lead to a train wreck like this:
Example: Mark Twain’s book, Tom Sawyer, is a delight.
Because of the commas, that sentence states that Twain wrote only one book. In fact, he wrote more than two dozen of them.
Rule 6a. Use a comma after certain words that introduce a sentence, such as well, yes, why, hello, hey, etc.
Examples:
Why, I can’t believe this!
No, you can’t have a dollar.
Rule 6b. Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt the sentence flow (nevertheless, after all, by the way, on the other hand, however, etc.).
Example: I am, by the way, very nervous about this.
Rule 6c. In general, use commas to set off the word too midsentence. However, it is usually not necessary to precede too with a comma at the end of a sentence.
Examples:
My sister, too, loves artichokes.
My sister loves artichokes too.
Rule 7. Use commas to set off the name, nickname, term of endearment, or title of a person directly addressed.
Examples:
Will you, Aisha, do that assignment for me?
Yes, old friend, I will.
Good day, Captain.
Rule 8. Use a comma to separate the day of the month from the year, and—what most people forget!—always put one after the year, also.
Example: It was in the Sun’s June 5, 2019, edition.
No comma is necessary for just the month and year.
Example: It was in a June 2019 article.
A comma may be advisable with other incomplete dates.
Examples:
Our planning meetings will take place on Friday, November 13 and Thursday, December 10.
Our planning meetings will take place on November 13 and December 10.
Rule 9. Use a comma to separate a city from its state, and remember to put one after the state, also.
Example: I’m from the Akron, Ohio, area.
Rule 10. Traditionally, if a person’s name is followed by Sr. or Jr., a comma follows the last name: Martin Luther King, Jr. This comma is no longer considered mandatory. However, if a comma does precede Sr. or Jr., another comma must follow the entire name when it appears midsentence.
Correct: Al Mooney Sr. is here.
Correct: Al Mooney, Sr., is here.
Incorrect: Al Mooney, Sr. is here.
Rule 11. Similarly, use commas to enclose degrees or titles used with names.
Example: Al Mooney, M.D., is here.
Rule 12a. Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotations of dialogue or text.
Examples:
He said, “I don’t care.”
“Why,” I asked, “don’t you care?”
Toni Morrison wrote, “If there’s a book that you want to read, but it hasn’t been written yet, then you must write it.”
This rule is optional with one-word quotations.
Example: He said “Stop.”
If a quotation is preceded by introductory words such as that, whether, if, a comma is normally not needed.
Example: Was it James Baldwin who wrote that “nothing can be changed until it is faced”?
A comma is not necessary to introduce titles of articles, chapters, songs, etc. (see Quotation Marks, Rule 6).
Example: I recently read an interesting article titled “A Poor Woman’s Journey.”
Rule 12b. If the quotation comes before he said, she wrote, they reported, Dana insisted, or a similar attribution, end the quoted material with a comma, even if it is only one word.
Examples:
“I don’t care,” he said.
“Stop,” he said.
Rule 12c. If a quotation functions as a subject or object in a sentence, it might not need a comma.
Examples:
Is “I don’t care” all you can say to me?
Saying “Stop the car” was a mistake.
Rule 12d. If a quoted question ends in midsentence, the question mark replaces a comma.
Example: “Will you still be my friend?” LaDonna asked.
Rule 13. Use a comma to separate a statement from a question.
Example: I can go, can’t I?
Rule 14. Use a comma to separate contrasting parts of a sentence.
Example: That is my money, not yours.
Rule 15a. Use a comma before and after certain introductory words or terms, such as namely, that is, i.e., e.g., including, and for instance, when they are followed by a series of items.
Example: You may be required to bring many items, e.g., sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing.
Rule 15b. Commas should precede the term etc. and enclose it if it is placed midsentence.
Example: Sleeping bags, pans, warm clothing, etc., are in the tent.
Semicolons
It’s no accident that a semicolon (;) is a period atop a comma. Like commas, semicolons indicate an audible pause—slightly longer than a comma’s, but short of a period’s full stop.
Semicolons have other functions, too. But first, a caveat: avoid the common mistake of using a semicolon to replace a colon (see Colons).
Incorrect: I have one goal; to find her.
Correct: I have one goal: to find her.
Rule 1a. A semicolon can replace a period if the writer wishes to narrow the gap between two closely linked sentences (independent clauses).
Examples:
Call me tomorrow; you can give me an answer then.
We have paid our dues; we expect all the privileges listed in the contract.
Rule 1b. Avoid a semicolon when a dependent clause comes before an independent clause.
Incorrect: Although they tried; they failed.
Correct: Although they tried, they failed.
Rule 2. Use a semicolon before such words and terms as namely, however, therefore, that is, i.e., for example, e.g., for instance, etc., when they introduce a complete sentence. It is also preferable to use a comma after these words and terms.
Example: Bring any two items; however, sleeping bags and tents are in short supply.
Rule 3. Use a semicolon to separate units of a series when one or more of the units contain commas.
Incorrect: The conference has people who have come from Moscow, Idaho, Springfield, California, Alamo, Tennessee, and other places as well.
Note that with only commas, that sentence is hopeless.
Correct: The conference has people who have come from Moscow, Idaho; Springfield, California; Alamo, Tennessee; and other places as well.
Note that a semicolon, rather than a comma, after Tennessee is correct because and other places as well also constitutes a unit of the series.
Correct: Dante Martinez, a registered nurse; Susan Brooks, a dietician; and Chien-Ling Ko, a physical therapist, attended the meeting.
In this case, attended the meeting is not a unit of the series and therefore is preceded only by a comma.
Rule 4. A semicolon may be used between independent clauses joined by a connector, such as and, but, or, nor, etc., when one or more commas appear in the first clause.
Example: When I finish here, and I will soon, I’ll be glad to help you; and that is a promise I will keep.
Rule 5. Do not capitalize ordinary words after a semicolon.
Incorrect: I am here; You are over there.
Correct: I am here; you are over there.
Colons
A colon means “that is to say” or “here’s what I mean.” Colons and semicolons should never be used interchangeably.
Rule 1a. Use a colon to introduce an item or a series of items. Do not capitalize the first item after the colon (unless it’s a proper noun).
Examples:
You know what to do: practice.
You may be required to bring many things: sleeping bags, pans, utensils, and warm clothing.
I want the following items: butter, sugar, and flour.
I need an assistant who can do the following: input data, write reports, and complete tax forms.
Rule 1b. A capital letter generally does not introduce a word, phrase, or incomplete sentence following a colon.
Examples:
He got what he worked for: a promotion.
He got what he worked for: a promotion that paid a higher wage.
Rule 2. Avoid using a colon before a list if it directly follows a verb or preposition that would ordinarily need no punctuation in that sentence.
Not recommended: I want: butter, sugar, and flour.
Recommended: I want butter, sugar, and flour.
OR
Here is what I want: butter, sugar, and flour.
Not recommended: I’ve seen the greats, including: Barrymore, Guinness, and Streep.
Recommended: I’ve seen the greats, including Barrymore, Guinness, and Streep.
Rule 3. When listing items one by one, one per line, following a colon, capitalization and ending punctuation are optional when using single words or phrases preceded by letters, numbers, or bullet points. If each point is a complete sentence, capitalize the first word and end the sentence with appropriate ending punctuation. Otherwise, there are no hard and fast rules, except be consistent.
Examples:
I want an assistant who can do the following:
input data
write reports
complete tax forms
The following are requested:
Wool sweaters for possible cold weather.
Wet suits for snorkeling.
Introductions to the local dignitaries.
These are the pool rules:
Do not run.
If you see unsafe behavior, report it to the lifeguard.
Did you remember your towel?
Have fun!
Rule 4. A colon instead of a semicolon may be used between independent clauses when the second sentence explains, illustrates, paraphrases, or expands on the first sentence.
Example: He got what he worked for: he really earned that promotion.
If a complete sentence follows a colon, as in the previous example, authorities are divided over whether to capitalize the first word. Some writers and editors feel that capitalizing a complete sentence after a colon is always advisable. Others advise against it. Still others regard it as a judgment call: If what follows the colon is closely related to what precedes it, there is no need for a capital. But if what follows is a general or formal statement, many writers and editors capitalize the first word.
Example: Remember the old saying: Be careful what you wish for.
Rule 5. Capitalize the first word of a complete or full-sentence quotation that follows a colon.
Example: The host made an announcement: “You are all staying for dinner.”
Rule 6. Capitalize the first word after a colon if the information following the colon requires two or more complete sentences.
Example: Dad gave us these rules to live by: Work hard. Be honest. Always show up on time.
Rule 7. If a quotation contains two or more sentences, many writers and editors introduce it with a colon rather than a comma.
Example: Dad often said to me: “Work hard. Be honest. Always show up on time.”
Rule 8. For extended quotations introduced by a colon, some style manuals say to indent one-half inch on both the left and right margins; others say to indent only on the left margin. Quotation marks are not used.
Example: The author of Touched, Jane Straus, wrote in the first chapter:
Georgia went back to her bed and stared at the intricate patterns of burned moth wings in the translucent glass of the overhead light. Her father was in “hyper mode” again where nothing could calm him down.
Rule 9. Use a colon rather than a comma to follow the salutation in a business letter, even when addressing someone by his or her first name. (Never use a semicolon after a salutation.) A comma is used after the salutation in more informal correspondence.
Formal: Dear Ms. Rodriguez:
Informal: Dear Dave,
Quotation Marks
The rules set forth in this section are customary in the United States. Great Britain and other countries in the Commonwealth of Nations are governed by quite different conventions. Nowhere is this more apparent than in Rule 4 in this section, a rule that has the advantage of being far simpler than Britain’s and the disadvantage of being far less logical.
Rule 1. Use double quotation marks to set off a direct (word-for-word) quotation.
Correct: “I hope you will be here,” he said.
Incorrect: He said that he “hoped I would be there.” (The quotation marks are incorrect because hoped I would be there does not state the speaker’s exact words.)
Rule 2a. Always capitalize the first word in a complete quotation, even midsentence.
Example: Lamarr said, “The case is far from over, and we will win.”
Rule 2b. Do not capitalize quoted material that continues a sentence.
Example: Lamarr said that the case was “far from over” and that “we will win.”
Rule 3a. Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotations of dialogue or text.
Examples:
He said, “I don’t care.”
“Why,” I asked, “don’t you care?”
Toni Morrison wrote, “If there’s a book that you want to read, but it hasn’t been written yet, then you must write it.”
This rule is optional with one-word quotations.
Example: He said “Stop.”
Rule 3b. If the quotation comes before he said, she wrote, they reported, Dana insisted, or a similar attribution, end the quoted material with a comma, even if it is only one word.
Examples:
“I don’t care,” he said.
“Stop,” he said.
Rule 3c. If a quotation functions as a subject or object in a sentence, it might not need a comma.
Examples:
Is “I don’t care” all you can say to me?
Saying “Stop the car” was a mistake.
Rule 4. Periods and commas ALWAYS go inside quotation marks.
Examples:
The sign read, “Walk.” Then it said, “Don’t Walk,” then, “Walk,” all within thirty seconds.
He yelled, “Hurry up.”
Rule 5a. The placement of question marks with quotation marks follows logic. If a question is within the quoted material, a question mark should be placed inside the quotation marks.
Alberta asked, “Will you still be my friend?”
The question “Will you still be my friend?” is part of the quotation.
Alberta yelled in frustration, “I cannot be your friend!”
The exclamation “I cannot be your friend!” is part of the quotation.
Do you agree with the saying, “All’s fair in love and war”?
The question Do you agree with the saying? is outside the quotation.
I hate when you say, “All’s fair in love and war”!
The exclamation I hate when you say! is outside the quotation.
Rule 5b. If a quoted question ends in midsentence, the question mark replaces a comma.
Example: “Will you still be my friend?” Alberta asked.
Rule 6. Quotation marks are used for components, such as chapter titles in a book, individual episodes of a TV series, songs from a Broadway show or a music album, titles of articles or essays in print or online, and shorter works such as short stories and poems.
It is customary in American publishing to put the title of an entire composition in italics. Put the title of a short work—one that is or could be part of a larger undertaking—in quotation marks.
A “composition” is a creative, journalistic, or scholarly enterprise that is whole, complex, a thing unto itself. This includes books, movies, plays, TV shows, newspapers, magazines, websites, music albums, operas, musical theater, paintings, sculptures, and other works of art.
Example: Richard Burton performed the song “Camelot” in the 1960 Broadway musical Camelot.
Although the word is the same, “Camelot” the song takes quotation marks because it’s part of a larger work—namely, a full-length show called Camelot.
Rule 7. Use single quotation marks for quotations within quotations.
Examples:
Dan said: “In a town outside Brisbane, I saw ‘Tourists go home’ written on a wall. But then someone told me, ‘Pay it no mind, lad.’ ”
Byung-hoon warned, “Mother will be angry. ‘Wait until your father gets home,’ she’ll say.”
Note that the period goes inside both the single and double quotation marks. Also note that, as a courtesy, there is visible space between adjacent single and double quotation marks.
While American style has periods and commas going inside single and double quotation marks, question marks follow logic. Question marks in a quotation within a quotation can get tricky.
Example: “Why do you keep saying, ‘This doesn’t make sense’?”
Rule 8a. Quotation marks are often used with technical terms, terms used in an unusual way, or other expressions that vary from standard usage.
Examples:
It’s an oil-extraction method known as “fracking.”
He did some “experimenting” in his college days.
I had a visit from my “friend” the tax man.
Rule 8b. Never use single quotation marks in sentences like the previous three.
Incorrect: I had a visit from my ‘friend’ the tax man.
The single quotation marks in the above sentence are intended to send a message to the reader that friend is being used in a special way: in this case, sarcastically. Avoid this invalid usage. Single quotation marks are valid only within a quotation, as per Rule 7, above.
Rule 9. When quoted material runs more than one paragraph, start each new paragraph with opening quotation marks, but do not use closing quotation marks until the end of the passage.
Example:
Francis wrote: “I don’t paint anymore. For a while I thought it was just a phase that I’d get over.
“Now, I don’t even try.”
Note: For extended quotations, see Rule 8 of Colons for an option that does not use quotation marks.
Parentheses
Rule 1. Use parentheses to enclose information that clarifies or is used as an aside.
Example: He finally answered (after taking five minutes to think) that he did not understand the question.
If material in parentheses ends a sentence, the period goes after the parentheses.
Example: He gave me a nice bonus ($500).
Commas could have been used in the first example; a colon could have been used in the second example. The use of parentheses indicates that the writer considered the information less important—almost an afterthought.
Rule 2a. Periods go inside parentheses only if an entire sentence is inside the parentheses.
Example: Please read the analysis. (You’ll be amazed.)
This is a rule with a lot of wiggle room. An entire sentence in parentheses is often acceptable without an enclosed period:
Example: Please read the analysis (you’ll be amazed).
Rule 2b. Take care to punctuate correctly when punctuation is required both inside and outside parentheses.
Example: You are late (aren’t you?).
Note the question mark within the parentheses. The period after the parentheses is necessary to bring the entire sentence to a close.
Rule 3. Parentheses, despite appearances, are not part of the subject.
Example: Joe (and his trusty mutt) was always welcome.
If this seems awkward, try rewriting the sentence:
Example: Joe (accompanied by his trusty mutt) was always welcome.
Rule 4. Commas are more likely to follow parentheses than precede them.
Incorrect: When he got home, (it was already dark outside) he fixed dinner.
Correct: When he got home (it was already dark outside), he fixed dinner.
Brackets
Brackets are far less common than parentheses, and they are only used in special cases. Brackets (like single quotation marks) are used exclusively within quoted material.
Rule 1. Brackets are interruptions. When we see them, we know they’ve been added by someone else. They are used to explain or comment on the quotation.
Examples:
“Four score and seven [today we’d say eighty-seven] years ago…”
“Bill shook hands with [his son] Al.”
Rule 2. When quoting something that has a spelling or grammar mistake or presents material in a confusing way, insert the term sic in italics and enclose it in nonitalic (unless the surrounding text is italic) brackets.
Sic (“thus” in Latin) is shorthand for, “This is exactly what the original material says.”
Example: She wrote, “I would rather die then [sic] be seen wearing the same outfit as my sister.”
The [sic] indicates that then was mistakenly used instead of than.
Rule 3. In formal writing, brackets are often used to maintain the integrity of both a quotation and the sentences others use it in.
Example: “[T]he better angels of our nature” gave a powerful ending to Lincoln’s first inaugural address.
Lincoln’s memorable phrase came midsentence, so the word the was not originally capitalized.
Apostrophes
Rule 1. Using an apostrophe to show singular possession
Rule 1a. Use the apostrophe to show possession. To show possession with a singular noun, add an apostrophe plus the letter s.
Examples:
a woman’s hat
the boss’s wife
Mrs. Chang’s house
Rule 1b. Many common nouns end in the letter s (lens, cactus, bus, etc.). So do a lot of proper nouns (Mr. Jones, Texas, Christmas). There are conflicting policies and theories about how to show possession when writing such nouns. There is no right answer; the best advice is to choose a formula and stay consistent.
Rule 1c. Some writers and editors add only an apostrophe to all nouns ending in s. And some add an apostrophe + s to every proper noun, be it Hastings’s or Jones’s.
One method, common in newspapers and magazines, is to add an apostrophe + s (’s) to common nouns ending in s, but only a stand-alone apostrophe to proper nouns ending in s.
Examples:
the class’s hours
Mr. Jones’ golf clubs
the canvas’s size
Texas’ weather
Note: We sometimes hear that an inanimate object cannot possess, e.g., the canvas’s size should be written the size of the canvas. However, this idea is routinely ignored by good writers (the rocket’s red glare).
Care must be taken to place the apostrophe outside the word in question. For instance, if talking about a pen belonging to Mr. Hastings, many people would wrongly write Mr. Hasting’s pen (his name is not Mr. Hasting).
Correct: Mr. Hastings’ pen
A widely used technique favored for its simplicity is to write the word as we would speak it. For example, since most people saying “Mr. Hastings’ pen” would not pronounce an added s, we would write Mr. Hastings’ pen with no added s. But most people would pronounce an added s in “Jones’s,” so we’d write it as we say it: Mr. Jones’s golf clubs. This method explains the punctuation of for goodness’ sake.
Rule 2. Using an apostrophe to show plural possession
Rule 2a. Regular nouns are nouns that form their plurals by adding either the letter s or es (guy, guys; letter, letters; actress, actresses; etc.). To show plural possession, simply put an apostrophe after the s.
Correct: guys’ night out (guy + s + apostrophe)
Incorrect: guy’s night out (implies only one guy)
Correct: two actresses’ roles (actress + es + apostrophe)
Incorrect: two actress’s roles
Rule 2b. Do not use an apostrophe + s to make a regular noun plural.
Incorrect: Apostrophe’s are confusing.
Correct: Apostrophes are confusing.
Incorrect: We’ve had many happy Christmas’s.
Correct: We’ve had many happy Christmases.
In special cases, such as when forming a plural of a word that is not normally a noun, some writers add an apostrophe for clarity.
Example: Here are some do’s and don’ts.
In that sentence, the verb do is used as a plural noun, and the apostrophe was added because the writer felt that dos was confusing. Not all writers agree; some see no problem with dos and don’ts.
However, with single lowercase letters, it is advisable to use apostrophes.
Example: My a’s look like u’s.
Imagine the confusion if you wrote that sentence without apostrophes. Readers would see as and us, and feel lost.
Rule 2c. English also has many irregular nouns (child, nucleus, tooth, etc.). These nouns become plural by changing their spelling, sometimes becoming quite different words. You may find it helpful to write out the entire irregular plural noun before adding an apostrophe or an apostrophe + s.
Incorrect: two childrens’ hats
The plural is children, not childrens.
Correct: two children’s hats (children + apostrophe + s)
Incorrect: the teeths’ roots
Correct: the teeth’s roots
Rule 2d. Things can get really confusing with the possessive plurals of proper names ending in s, ch, z, such as Hastings, Jones, Birch, and Sanchez.
If you’re the guest of the Ford family—the Fords—you’re the Fords’ guest (Ford + s + apostrophe). But what if it’s the Hastings family?
Most would call them the “Hastings.” But that would refer to a family named “Hasting.” If someone’s name ends in s, ch, z, we must add es for the plural. The plural of Hastings is Hastingses. The members of the Birch family are the Birches.
To show possession, add an apostrophe.
Incorrect: the Hastings’ dog
Correct: the Hastingses’ dog (Hastings + es + apostrophe)
Incorrect: the Jones’ car
Correct: the Joneses’ car
Incorrect: the Birch’s home
Correct: the Birches’ home
Incorrect: the Sanchez’ new baby, the Sanchezs’ new baby
Correct: the Sanchezes’ new baby
In serious writing, this rule must be followed no matter how strange or awkward the results.
Rule 2e. Never use an apostrophe to make a name plural.
Incorrect: The Wilson’s are here.
Correct: The Wilsons are here.
Incorrect: We visited the Sanchez’s.
Correct: We visited the Sanchezes.
Rule 3. With a singular compound noun (for example, mother-in-law), show possession with an apostrophe + s at the end of the word.
Example: my mother-in-law’s hat
If the compound noun (e.g., brother-in-law) is to be made plural, form the plural first (brothers-in-law), and then use the apostrophe + s.
Example: my two brothers-in-law’s hats
Rule 4a. If two people possess the same item, put the apostrophe + s after the second name only.
Example: Cesar and Maribel’s home is constructed of redwood.
However, if one of the joint owners is written as a pronoun, use the possessive form for both.
Incorrect: Maribel and my home
Incorrect: Mine and Maribel’s home
Correct: Maribel’s and my home
Incorrect: he and Maribel’s home
Incorrect: him and Maribel’s home
Correct: his and Maribel’s home
Incorrect: you and Maribel’s home
Incorrect: yours and Maribel’s home
Correct: Maribel’s and your home
Note: As the above examples demonstrate, when one of the co-owners is written as a pronoun, use possessive adjectives (my, your, her, our, their). Avoid possessive pronouns (mine, yours, hers, ours, theirs) in such constructions.
It should be mentioned that compound possessives are often clunky as well as confusing. For instance, a picture of her and Cesar’s house could refer to a photo of “her” in front of the house that Cesar owns or a photo of the house that she and Cesar co-own. Big difference. Such ambiguous sentences should just be rewritten.
Rule 4b. In cases of separate rather than joint possession, use the possessive form for both.
Examples:
Cesar’s and Maribel’s homes are both lovely.
They don’t own the homes jointly.
Cesar and Maribel’s homes are both lovely.
The homes belong to both of them.
Rule 5. Use an apostrophe with contractions. The apostrophe is placed where a letter or letters have been removed.
Examples: Doesn’t, it’s, ’tis, can’t, you’d, should’ve, rock ’n’ roll, etc.
Incorrect: Does’nt
Rule 6. There are various approaches to plurals for abbreviations, single letters, and numerals.
Many writers and editors prefer an apostrophe after single capitalized letters. (See Rule 2b. in regard to single lowercase letters.)
Example: I made straight A’s.
With groups of two or more capital letters, apostrophes seem less necessary.
Examples:
There are two new MPs on the base.
He learned his ABCs.
She consulted with three M.D.s.
Some write M.D.’s to give the s separation from the second period.
There are different schools of thought about years and decades. The following examples are all in widespread use:
Examples:
the 1990s
the 1990’s
the ’90s
the 90’s
Awkward: the ’90’s
Rule 7. Amounts of time or money are sometimes used as possessive adjectives that require apostrophes.
Incorrect: three days leave
Correct: three days’ leave
Incorrect: my two cents worth
Correct: my two cents’ worth
Rule 8. The personal pronouns hers, ours, yours, theirs, its, whose, and the pronoun oneself never take an apostrophe.
Examples:
Correct: Feed a horse grain. It’s better for its health.
Incorrect: Who’s glasses are these?
Correct: Whose glasses are these?
Incorrect: Talking to one’s self in public is odd.
Correct: Talking to oneself in public is odd.
Rule 9. When an apostrophe comes before a word or number, take care that it’s truly an apostrophe (’) rather than a single quotation mark (‘).
Incorrect: ‘Twas the night before Christmas.
Correct: ’Twas the night before Christmas.
Incorrect: I voted in ‘08.
Correct: I voted in ’08.
Rule 10. Beware of false possessives, which often occur with nouns ending in s. Don’t add apostrophes to noun-derived adjectives ending in s. Close analysis is the best guide.
Incorrect: We enjoyed the New Orleans’ cuisine.
In the preceding sentence, the word the makes no sense unless New Orleans is being used as an adjective to describe cuisine. In English, nouns frequently become adjectives. Adjectives rarely if ever take apostrophes.
Incorrect: I like that Beatles’ song.
Correct: I like that Beatles song.
Again, Beatles is an adjective, modifying song.
Incorrect: He’s a United States’ citizen.
Correct: He’s a United States citizen.
Rule 11. Beware of nouns ending in y; do not show possession by changing the y to ies.
Correct: the company’s policy
Incorrect: the companies policy
To show possession when a noun ending in y becomes plural, write ies’. Do not write y’s.
Correct: three companies’ policies
Incorrect: three company’s policies
Exception: Names and other proper nouns ending in y become plural simply by adding an s. They do not form their plurals with an apostrophe, or by changing the y to ies.
Correct: The Flannerys are coming over.
Incorrect: The Flannery’s are coming over.
Incorrect: The Flanneries are coming over.
Correct: The Flannerys’ house was robbed.
Incorrect: The Flanneries’ house was robbed.
Hyphens
There are two things to keep in mind about this misunderstood punctuation mark. First, there should not be spaces around hyphens. Second, hyphens should not be used interchangeably with dashes (with the exception of Rule 6 below), which are noticeably longer.
Hyphens’ main purpose is to glue words together. They notify the reader that two or more elements in a sentence are linked. Although there are rules and customs governing hyphens, there are also situations when writers must decide whether to add them for clarity.
Rule 1a. Generally, hyphenate two or more words when they come before a noun they modify and act as a single idea. This is called a compound adjective.
Examples:
an off-campus apartment
state-of-the-art design
When a compound adjective follows a noun, a hyphen is usually not necessary.
Example: The apartment is off campus.
However, some established compound adjectives are always hyphenated. Double-check with a dictionary or online.
Example: The design is state-of-the-art.
Rule 1b. Use suspended hyphens when two or more compound adjectives come before the noun they modify.
Example: We offer the finest protective equipment, including latex- and phthalate-free gloves.
Incorrect: You can expect a three-four-week delay in processing.
Correct: You can expect a three- to four-week delay in processing.
This is equivalent to writing You can expect a three-week to four-week delay in processing.
Rule 2a. A hyphen is frequently required when forming original compound verbs for vivid writing, humor, or special situations.
Examples:
The slacker video-gamed his way through life.
Queen Victoria throne-sat for six decades.
Rule 2b. When writing out new, original, or unusual compound nouns, writers should hyphenate whenever doing so avoids confusion.
Examples:
I changed my diet and became a no-meater.
No-meater is too confusing without the hyphen.
The slacker was a video gamer.
Video gamer is clear without a hyphen, although some writers might prefer to hyphenate it.
Writers using familiar compound verbs and nouns should consult a dictionary or look online to decide if these verbs and nouns should be hyphenated.
Rule 3. An often overlooked rule for hyphens: The adverb very and adverbs ending in ly are not hyphenated.
Incorrect: the very-elegant watch
Incorrect: the finely-tuned watch
This rule applies only to adverbs. The following two examples are correct because the ly words are not adverbs:
Correct: the friendly-looking dog
Correct: a family-owned cafe
Rule 4. Hyphens are often used to tell the ages of people and things. A handy rule, whether writing about years, months, or any other period of time, is to use hyphens unless the period of time (years, months, weeks, days) is written in plural form:
With hyphens:
We have a two-year-old child.
We have a two-year-old.
No hyphens: The child is two years old. (Because years is plural.)
Exception: The child is one year old. (Or day, week, month, etc.)
Note that when hyphens are involved in expressing ages, two hyphens are required. Many writers forget the second hyphen:
Incorrect: We have a two-year old child.
Without the second hyphen, the sentence is about an “old child.”
Rule 5. Never hesitate to add a hyphen if it solves a possible problem. Following are two examples of well-advised hyphens:
Confusing: Springfield has little town charm.
With hyphen: Springfield has little-town charm.
Without the hyphen, the sentence seems to say that Springfield is a dreary place. With the hyphen, little-town becomes a compound adjective, making the writer’s intention clear: Springfield is a charming small town.
Confusing: She had a concealed weapons permit.
With hyphen: She had a concealed-weapons permit.
With no hyphen, we can only guess: Was the weapons permit hidden from sight, or was it a permit for concealed weapons? The hyphen makes concealed-weapons a compound adjective, so the reader knows that the writer meant a permit for concealed weapons.
Rule 6. When using numbers, hyphenate spans or estimates of time, distance, or other quantities. Remember not to use spaces around hyphens.
Examples:
3:15-3:45 p.m.
1999-2016
300-325 people
Note: Most publishers use the slightly longer en dash instead of a hyphen in this situation.
Examples:
3:15–3:45 p.m.
1999–2016
300–325 people
Rule 7a. In general, with physical quantities, use a hyphen when the unit, abbreviation, or symbol is spelled out.
Examples:
80-pound bag
six-centimeter caterpillar (Note: the number is spelled out here because it’s less than ten and not used with a symbol or abbreviation.)
100-meter dash
Rule 7b. In general, hyphens are not used between the numeral and the abbreviation or symbol, even when they are in adjectival form.
Examples:
80 lb. bag
6 cm caterpillar
100 m dash (Note: use a period when abbreviating English units but not when abbreviating metric units.)
Rule 8. Hyphenate all compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine.
Examples:
thirty-two children
one thousand two hundred twenty-one dollars
Rule 9a. Hyphenate all spelled-out fractions. But do not hyphenate fractions introduced with a or an.
Examples:
More than one-third of registered voters oppose the measure.
More than a third of registered voters oppose the measure.
Rule 9b. When writing out numbers with fractions, hyphenate only the fractions unless the construction is a compound adjective.
Correct: The sign is five and one-half feet long.
Correct: A five-and-one-half-foot-long sign.
Incorrect: The sign is five-and-one-half feet long.
See also Rule 2b in Writing Numbers.
Rule 10a. Do not hyphenate proper nouns of more than one word when they are used as compound adjectives.
Incorrect: She is an Academy-Award nominee.
Correct: She is an Academy Award nominee.
Rule 10b. However, hyphenate most double last names.
Example: Sir Winthrop Heinz-Eakins will attend.
Rule 11. Many editors do not hyphenate certain well-known expressions. They believe that set phrases, because of their familiarity (e.g., high school, ice cream, twentieth century), can go before a noun without risk of confusing the reader.
Examples:
a high school senior
an ice cream cone
a twentieth century throwback
However, other editors prefer hyphenating all compound modifiers, even those with low risk of ambiguity.
Examples:
a high-school senior
an ice-cream cone
a twentieth-century throwback
Rule 12. When in doubt, look it up. Some familiar phrases may require hyphens. For instance, is a book up to date or up-to-date? Don’t guess; have a dictionary close by, or look it up online.
Hyphens with Prefixes
A prefix (a, un, de, ab, sub, post, anti, etc.) is a letter or set of letters placed before a root word. The word prefix itself contains the prefix pre. Prefixes expand or change a word’s meaning, sometimes radically: the prefixes a, un, and dis, for example, change words into their opposites (e.g., political, apolitical; friendly, unfriendly; regular, irregular; honor, dishonor).
Rule 1. Hyphenate prefixes when they come before proper nouns or proper adjectives.
Examples:
trans-American
mid-July
Rule 2. In describing family relations, great requires a hyphen, but grand becomes part of the word without a hyphen.
Examples:
My grandson and my granduncle never met.
My great-great-grandfather fought in the Civil War.
Do not hyphenate half brother or half sister.
Rule 3. For clarity, many writers hyphenate prefixes ending in a vowel when the root word begins with the same letter.
Example:
ultra-ambitious
semi-invalid
However, in recognition of the modern trend toward spare hyphenation, do not hyphenate after pre and re prefixes when the root word begins with e.
Rule 4. Hyphenate all words beginning with the prefixes self-, ex- (i.e., former), and all-.
Examples:
self-assured
ex-mayor
all-knowing
Rule 5. Use a hyphen with the prefix re when omitting the hyphen would cause confusion with another word.
Examples:
Will she recover from her illness?
I have re-covered the sofa twice.
Omitting the hyphen would cause confusion with recover.
I must re-press the shirt.
Omitting the hyphen would cause confusion with repress.
The stamps have been reissued.
A hyphen after re- is not needed because there is no confusion with another word.
Rule 6. Writers often hyphenate prefixes when they feel a word might be distracting or confusing without the hyphen.
Examples:
de-ice
With no hyphen we get deice, which might stump readers.
co-worker
With no hyphen we get coworker, which could be distracting because it starts with cow.
Hyphens with Suffixes
A suffix (y, er, ism, able, etc.) is a letter or set of letters that follows a root word. Suffixes form new words or alter the original word to perform a different task. For example, the noun scandal can be made into the adjective scandalous by adding the suffix ous. It becomes the verb scandalize by adding the suffix ize.
Rule 1. Suffixes are not usually hyphenated. Some exceptions: -style, -elect, -free, -based.
Examples:
Modernist-style paintings
Mayor-elect Smith
sugar-free soda
oil-based sludge
Rule 2. For clarity, writers often hyphenate when the last letter in the root word is the same as the first letter in the suffix.
Examples:
graffiti-ism
wiretap-proof
Rule 3. Use discretion—and sometimes a dictionary—before deciding to place a hyphen before a suffix. But do not hesitate to hyphenate a rare usage if it avoids confusion.
Examples:
the annual dance-athon
an eel-esque sea creature
Although the preceding hyphens help clarify unusual terms, they are optional and might not be every writer’s choice. Still, many readers would scratch their heads for a moment over danceathon and eelesque.
Dashes
Dashes can be a complex topic with many subtle uses. The various types include the en dash, em dash, 2-em dash, and 3-em dash. We will limit our discussion to the most common uses of the en and em dashes as they will fulfill the bulk of the needs of most writers.
Em dashes, like commas, semicolons, colons, ellipses, and parentheses, indicate added emphasis, an interruption, or an abrupt change of thought. Experienced writers know that these marks are not interchangeable. Note how dashes subtly change the tone of the following sentences:
Examples:
You are the friend, the only friend, who offered to help me.
You are the friend—the only friend—who offered to help me.
I pay the bills; she has all the fun.
I pay the bills—she has all the fun.
I wish you would … oh, never mind.
I wish you would—oh, never mind.
Rule 1. Words and phrases between dashes are not generally part of the subject.
Example: Joe—and his trusty mutt—was always welcome.
Rule 2. Dashes replace otherwise mandatory punctuation, such as the commas after Iowa and 2020 in the following examples:
Without dash: The man from Ames, Iowa, arrived.
With dash: The man—he was from Ames, Iowa—arrived.
Without dash: The May 1, 2020, edition of the Ames Sentinel arrived in June.
With dash: The Ames Sentinel—dated May 1, 2020—arrived in June.
Rule 3. Some writers and publishers prefer spaces around dashes.
Example: Joe — and his trusty mutt — was always welcome.
En dashes are shorter than em dashes and longer than hyphens. Like hyphens, they can be used for number ranges (see Rule 6 of Hyphens Between Words).
Examples:
The student council will meet Thursday, 3:15–3:45 p.m.
During the years 1999–2016, Joshua lived in Fargo, North Dakota.
We expect 300–325 people at the reception.
En dashes also can be used to punctuate open compound adjectives like New York based artist or Charles Dickens inspired writer. New York and Charles Dickens are called open compounds in these cases because we would not normally hyphenate them. Some writers and publishers prefer using an en dash for these situations, but a hyphen would work as well.
Examples:
New York–based artist
Charles Dickens–inspired writer
However, consider the open compound expression apple orchard scented candle. Using an en dash for this phrase may better clarify the intent for readers over using a hyphen.
Example: apple orchard–scented candle
Some methods for forming these punctuation marks on a PC:
En dash—hold down the Alt key and type 0150 on the numeric keypad
Em dash—hold down the Alt key and type 0151 on the numeric keypad
On a Mac:
En dash—press option+hyphen key
Em dash—press option+shift+hyphen key
Ellipses
Definition
An ellipsis (plural: ellipses) is a punctuation mark consisting of three dots.
Use an ellipsis when omitting a word, phrase, line, paragraph, or more from a quoted passage. Ellipses save space or remove material that is less relevant. They are useful in getting right to the point without delay or distraction:
Full quotation: “Today, after hours of careful thought, we vetoed the bill.”
With ellipsis: “Today … we vetoed the bill.”
Although ellipses are used in many ways, the three-dot method is the simplest. Newspapers, magazines, and books of fiction and nonfiction use various approaches that they find suitable.
Some writers and editors feel that no spaces are necessary.
Example: I don’t know…I’m not sure.
A commonly used method we favor is to enclose the ellipsis with a space on each side.
Example: I don’t know … I’m not sure.
A four-dot method may be used to indicate the period at the end of a sentence, then the ellipsis to indicate omitted material.
Example: I don’t know.… I’m not sure.
Even more rigorous methods used by some publishers and in legal works require fuller explanations that can be found in other reference books.
Rule 1. Many writers use an ellipsis whether the omission occurs at the beginning of a sentence, in the middle of a sentence, or between sentences.
A common way to delete the beginning of a sentence is to follow the opening quotation mark with an ellipsis, plus a bracketed capital letter:
Example: “… [A]fter hours of careful thought, we vetoed the bill.”
Other writers omit the ellipsis in such cases, feeling the bracketed capital letter gets the point across.
For more on brackets, see Parentheses and Brackets.
Rule 2. Ellipses can express hesitation, changes of mood, suspense, or thoughts trailing off. Writers also use ellipses to indicate a pause or wavering in an otherwise straightforward sentence.
Examples:
I don’t know … I’m not sure.
Pride is one thing, but what happens if she …?
He said, “I … really don’t … understand this.”
Question Marks
Rule 1. Use a question mark only after a direct question.
Correct: Will you go with me?
Incorrect: I’m asking if you will go with me?
Rule 2a. A question mark replaces a period at the end of a sentence.
Incorrect: Will you go with me?.
Rule 2b. Because of Rule 2a, capitalize the word that follows a question mark.
Some writers choose to overlook this rule in special cases.
Example: Will you go with me? with Joe? with anyone?
Rule 3a. Avoid the common trap of using question marks with indirect questions, which are statements that contain questions. Use a period after an indirect question.
Incorrect: I wonder if he would go with me?
Correct:
I wonder if he would go with me.
OR
I wonder: Would he go with me?
Rule 3b. Some sentences are statements—or demands—in the form of a question. They are called rhetorical questions because they don’t require or expect an answer. Many should be written without question marks.
Examples:
Why don’t you take a break.
Would you kids knock it off.
What wouldn’t I do for you!
Rule 4. Use a question mark when a sentence is half statement and half question.
Example: You do care, don’t you?
Rule 5. The placement of question marks with quotation marks follows logic. If a question is within the quoted material, a question mark should be placed inside the quotation marks.
Examples:
Alberta asked, “Will you still be my friend?”
The question “Will you still be my friend?” is part of the quotation.
Do you agree with the saying, “All’s fair in love and war”?
The question Do you agree with the saying? is outside the quotation.
