Public Health And State Vet Service Flashcards
what are the four principles of enforcement
Proportionality
conitensy
transparincy
targeting
proportionality
the first principle of enforcment
Proportionality in securing compliance will generally involve taking account of the degree
of the risk of harm caused by non-compliance. Sometimes, however, the precautionary
principle will require enforcement action to be taken even though the risks may be
uncertain.
Consistency
the second prnciple of enforcment
Consistency means taking a similar approach in similar cases to achieve similar outcomes
within which a degree of discretion is available. There are many variables to be taken into
account in using discretion to achieve an outcome, such as the attitude and competence of
the regulated person to bringing about the outcome sought.
transparency
the third principle of enforcment
Transparency means helping those regulated to comprehend what is required of them at
the outset and setting out what they may expect from Defra in return. It also involves
making clear what remedial action is required from the regulated person and providing
details of any rights of appeal etc.
targeting
the fourth principle of enforcment
Targeting of enforcement action means prioritising and directing regulatory effort
effectively. This means concentrating on the activities which create the most serious risk,
either because the nature of the activity is inherently high-risk or because of a lack of
appropriate controls or appropriate attitude in other less high-risk activities. It also involves
identifying and focusing on those responsible for the risk.
minister positions in defra
Minister of State for Pacific and the Environment
Parliamentary Under Secretary of State (Minister for Rural Affairs and Biosecurity)
Minister of State
Parliamentary Under Secretary of State
protecting and promoting animal welfare through non legislative approches
– OIE (World Organisation for Animal Health), Farm Quality Assurance schemes, welfare-friendly labelling, retailer schemes, codes of best practice, public campaigns/pressure groups
protecting and promoting animal welfare through legislative approches
– Creation, implementation and enforcement of UK legislation – role for the state veterinarian
what is an Unnecessary suffering offence
Animal Welfare Act 2006
A person commits an offence if—
(a) an act of his, or a failure of his to act, causes an animal to suffer,
(b) he knew, or ought reasonably to have known, that the act, or failure to act, would have that effect or be likely to do so,
(c) the animal is a protected animal, and
(d) the suffering is unnecessary.
Define notifiable disease
any of various health conditions that upon detection are required by the uk goverment to be reported to public health authorities. For certain diseases, namely those of an infectious nature, mandatory disease reporting plays a critical role in preventing and controlling the spread of disease in populations.
Animal diseases that you’re legally
obliged to report to the APHA, even
if you only suspect that an animal(s)
may be affected
diseases are notifiable in aid of-
International trade
Public health
Animal welfare
Define reportable disease
diseases requred to be reported by the EU’s Animal Health Regulation
The Zoonoses Order 1989 requires the reporting to the government (APHA) of certain designated organisms – Salmonella and Brucella spp.
The amendment order of 2021 expanded this requirement to also include Brucella canis and Salmonella detection from dogs
In addition to the changes regarding Brucella and Salmonella relating to the Zoonoses Orders, new EU legislation necessitated the laboratory isolation of other diseases to be made reportable in GB
This was because of the introduction of the EU Animal Health Law – Regulation (EU) 2016/429 in April 2021 – Annex 2 has a list of animal diseases: CL2016R0429EN0020010.0001.3bi_cp 1..1 (europa.eu)
To meet trade requirements and maintain export markets to the EU as a Third Country, 15 extra diseases were now made reportable on detection, 10 of which are endemic in GB e.g. Paratuberculosis (Johne’s), Q fever, IBR, BVDV, PRRS
Define exotic in the context of notifiable diseases
Exotic diseases are infectious diseases that do not occur in the uk
Define endemic in the context of notifiable diseases
an infection is said to be endemic in a population when that infection is constantly maintained at a baseline level in a geographic area without external inputs.
Define epizootic in the context of notifiable diseases
Epizootics are epidemic outbreak of disease in an animal population, often with the implication that it may extend to humans.
Summarise the control program of bovine Tuberculosis in the UK
control scheme is based on tuberculin skin testing, slaughter of animals that test positive (‘reactors’) and movement restrictions placed on herds/farms where those animals are found, meat inspection and milk pasteurisation.
APHA try to reduce the risk of notifiable diseases by
Stopping imports from infected areas or countries
Pre-export tests and isolation
Post import checks- isolation and quarentines
Trading partners
Horizon scanning- staff look at rates in other countries and make risk assesments to predict the liklyhood of certian diseases enterin the uk
Active and passive surveillance programmes
Horizon scanning
staff look at rates in other countries and make risk assesments to predict the liklyhood of certian diseases enterin the uk
EVA- Equine Viral Arteritis
Equids
Not zoonotic
EVA order 1995-This Order provides for the extension of the definition of disease in the Animal Health Act 1981 to include equine viral arteritis
only notifiable for stallions and mares that have been breeding in the last 14 days
Fever, depression, anorexia
Oedema- limbs
Conjunctivitis, rhinitis, nasal discharge,
Abortion, stillbirths- big impact
Rare: enteritis or pneumo-enteritis in young foals
Or none
Mortality very low: most have full recoveries
transmission-
Respiratory- most important in acute phase
Venereal- can survive in chilled semen
Congenital
Fomites (contaminated equipment)=- artificial vagina
Carrier stallions- long standing infection. very importan source of infection. acutly infected can become long term carriers. stallion may be asymptomatic. cycle of disease. carrire state is testosterone dependent
Stallions do not show signs
Scenario-
Recently purchased horse
Pre-breeding bloods for EVA requested by owner
high positive antibody titre
Why does this stallion have a high titre?
Acute infection
Previous exposure: non carrier
Previous exposure: carrier
EVA vaccination
when would you call the APHA when a horse presents with a high antibody titre for EVA
If the horse is a mare bred in the last 14 days or a gelding
if the horse has any clinical signs
Has this horse been EVA vaccinated?
Is this vaccine ‘up to date’- once vaccinated you cannot tel the difference between exposure and vaccine. should be tested for eva before vaccine and the results marked on passport
Can APHA rule out that this stallion is not a carrier?- vaccination up to date?
Confirm investigation required- Restrictions
APHA investigate
Complete official blood sampling
Non-negative official results-
How to spot bluetongue in sheep
Signs of bluetongue in sheep include:
ulcers in the mouth discharge of mucus and drooling from mouth and nose swelling of the mouth, head and neck and the coronary band (where the skin of the leg meets the horn of the foot)
Other clinical signs include:
red skin as a result of blood collecting beneath the surface fever lameness breathing problems
how to spot bluetounge in cattle
Cattle are the main carriers of bluetongue. Signs of the disease include:
lethargy crusty erosions around the nostrils and muzzle redness of the mouth, eyes, nose reddening of the skin above the hoof nasal discharge reddening and erosions on the teats elevated temperature milk drop not eating
Most adult animals show only mild clinical signs, or show no signs of disease at all.
Calves can become infected with bluetongue (BTV-8) before birth, if the mother is infected while pregnant. Signs of infection include:
calves born small, weak, deformed or blind death of calves within a few days of birth abortion
How bluetongue is spread
Midges carry the bluetongue virus. They are infected with the virus when they bite an infected animal. The virus spreads when the infected midge bites an uninfected animal. Once a midge has picked up the BTV virus it will be a carrier for the rest of its life.
Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs
Lower mortality than “the big three” (HIV, malaria, TB)
Regions of extreme poverty, poor healthcare, conflict
Lack of money, infrastructure and education in endemic regions
Buruli Ulcer (Mycobacterium ulcerans)
Chagas disease (American Trypanosomiasis)
Dengue and Chikungunya
Dracunculiasis (Guinea-worm disease)
Echinococcosis
Foodborne trematodiases
Human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness)
Leishmaniasis
Leprosy
Lymphatic filariasis
Mycetoma, chromoblastomycosis and other deep mycoses
Onchocerciasis (river blindness)
Rabies
Scabies and other ectoparasites
Schistosomiasis
Snakebite envenoming
Soil transmitted helminthiases e.g. Ascaris
Taeniasis/Cysticercosis
Trachoma
Yaws (Endemic treponematoses)
Dracunculiasis (Guinea worm)
Thread-like nematode. Female can be up to 80 cm in length
Transmitted in water containing parasite-infected water fleas
Believed to be anthroponotic
Huge efforts to control the disease:
Absence of vaccine or drugs
Rapid identification of cases
Bandaging to stop spread of parasite
Use of larvicide in water (Abate)
Water filtering
Health education
Previously thought to have no reservoir hosts
Recent reports of infected dogs in Chad (1,000 cases in 2016)
Dog parasite is genetically the same as human parasite
Can these animals act as a reservoir host?
Hypothesis: alternative life cycle in fish
Dogs eat infected fish
Will this prevent Guinea worm from being eradicated?
Awareness of animal reservoirs is critical
African Trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness)
Caused by Trypanosoma brucei
Fatal disease in humans if untreated
Only found in sub-Saharan Africa (tsetse belt)
Live freely in bloodstream and then invade central nervous system
Cattle farming is challenging in the ‘Tsetse belt’ due to risk of trypanosomes
Early stage disease
Fever, extreme fatigue, severe headaches, swollen lymph glands
Late stage disease
Progressive confusion, personality changes and sleep disturbance
Coma and death if untreated
fly takes blood meal,
parasite develops in fly
fly takes second blood meal from human and transmits the parasite to the blood stream and the skin
parasite rapidly develops and disease progresses
Parasite remains extracellular
Exposed to continuous attack by host antibodies and complement
Uses multiple mechanisms to survive
fever comes in waves and these Waves of fever correlate with number of parasites in the blood
Due to antigenic variation of the surface coat- parasites rpoliferate, are killed then proliferate again ect
Parasite is always extracellular and vulnerable to attack
VSG helps evade immune system in the following ways:
Protective barrier
Antigenic variation
Rapidly recycled to remove bound complexes
Three subspecies of T. brucei which are very closely related:
T. brucei brucei
Only infects livestock such as cattle
Killed by human serum
T. brucei rhodesiense
Infects humans (acute disease) and livestock
T. brucei gambiense
Infects humans (chronic disease) and livestock
kinetoplast
contains mitochondrial dna
t brucei posses this
T. brucei surface coat
Bloodstream form T. brucei have a very dense coat made of variant surface glycoprotein (VSG)
Attached to surface membrane through a GPI (glycosylphosphatidylinositol) anchor
VSG coat covers entire cell including flagellum
Immune evasion functions of VSG:
Protective barrier
Antigenic variation
Recycled to remove bound complexes
Antigenic variation of VSG and host response:
The parasite has over 1500 VSG genes but only one is expressed at a time
Host produces antibodies and kills nearly all parasites
Surviving parasites are those which express a different VSG
Nearly all VSG genes are found in silent arrays
Only one gene is expressed at a time from 1 of 15 possible telomeric expression sites (ES)
The other 14 ES are transcriptionally silenced
Parasite can switch off one ES and switch on a different one
Only 15 possibilities: not enough to sustain a long term infection
DNA rearrangement:
Change VSG gene in the ES
Make mosaic VSG genes
Massively increases number of possible VSG genes expressed
Host antibodies are produced to each VSG when they are expressed
Constant battle between host and parasite
variation of the surface coat involves the flagellum:
Motile flagellum is attached to the outside of the body
Motility causes hydrodynamic forces
VSG-antibody complex driven towards flagellar pocket- recycling of surface coat
Motility is needed for internalization of VSG
T. brucei brucei host
Only infects livestock such as cattle
Killed by human serum
T. brucei brucei is rapidly killed by human serum
Undergoes swelling (lysosome bursts)
What is causing this?
Trypanolytic factors TLF-1 and TLF-2 found in human serum:
High density lipoprotein (HDL)
- TLF-1 particles contain haptoglobin-related protein HPR, apolipoprotein L-1 (apoL-1) and apolipoprotein A-1
Haptoglobin (Hp) is a glycoprotein found in blood
Binds to free haemoglobin (Hb) and protects against toxicity
Captured Hb is directed to macrophages expressing CD163
Humans and primates have novel variants of Hp and also a haptoglobin-related protein (Hpr)
T. brucei has a haptoglobin-haemoglobin receptor
Takes up haptoglobin and haemoglobin as a source of haem
Trypanolytic Factor 1 (TLF-1) complex binds to the T. brucei receptor via Hpr
Any T. brucei brucei cells in human serum become bound to TLF-1
TLF-1 enters the cell by endocytosis at the flagellar pocket
TLF-1 is taken into the parasite by endocytosis
Apo-L1 is transported to lysosome
Causes the formation of pores in the lysosome membrane
Lysosomal swelling and cell death
T. brucei rhodesiense host
Infects humans (acute disease) and livestock
can survive in human serum because:
TLF-1 is taken into the parasite by endocytosis
Apo-L1 is blocked by a protein called SRA
There is no lysosomal swelling or cell death
Humans with ApoL1 variants G1 and G2 Have resistance to T. brucei rhodesiense
The ApoL1 is resistant to SRA
Lysosomal swelling and cell death
Risk of severe kidney disease but short term survival advantage
SRA has an ApoL1 interacting domain. Otherwise is similar to VSGs
ApoL1 has a ColA-like domain involved in pore formation, a domain for binding to membranes and an SRA interacting domain
Implications for control of veterinary disease
Can we produce GM livestock with ability to kill T. brucei brucei?
What if we selected for ApoL1-resistant parasites?
T. brucei gambiense host
Infects humans (chronic disease) and livestock
Surra (Trypanosoma evansi)
Non-tsetse transmitted animal trypanosomiasis
Mechanical transmission by biting insects (esp. Tabanus)
Not usually infective to humans
biting insect can only transmit withing half an hour of biting an infected animal
Wide geographical distribution
North Africa, Middle East, Latin/South America, Asia
Host range of T. evansi
North Africa and Middle East: dromedary camels and equines
Asia: water buffalo, cattle, pigs, goats
Latin/South America: equines, capybara, vampire bat (vector)
Many other domestic and wild host species including:
Rodents, sheep, dogs, cats, deer, gazelles, deer, elephant, rhinoceros, orang utan, wolves, jackals, hyenas, black bears, red howler monkeys, wallabies, guinea pigs, armadillos.
Surra from Indi meaning “rotten”
Fever, anaemia, anorexia, loss of weight
Abortions
Cachexia and death
Highly variable in different hosts and geographical regions
A neglected veterinary tropical disease?
Reports of high prevalence in wide range of species
Notifiable to the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE)
Few drugs are available for treatment
Quinapyramine sulphate, diminazene
Counterfeit drugs
Emergence of drug resistance?
Reinfection rates are high
Dourine (T. equiperdum)
Closely related to T. evansi
Sexually transmitted
Narrow host range: equines
May cause acute infection and death within days
Mechanical transmission (often Tabanus flies)
Parasites only survive for a short time on insect mouthparts
T. evansi and T. equiperdum are practically monomorphic
No differentiation into insect-infective stage
Have a much wider geographical range than tsetse-transmitted trypanosomes
Leishmaniasis
Infection with Leishmania
Spread by sand flies
Leishmania reside inside macrophages- intracellular
Estimated 2 million new cases per year
No vaccine and difficult to treat
Forms of leishmaniasis:
Cutaneous (CL)- parasites in skin, can progress to-
Mucocutaneous- goes to mucus membranes, can cause loss of appendages
Visceral- can go to spkeen and liver
1/3 of dogs in span could be infected
important resoviour
lifecycle-
sandfly takes blood meal
parasites become promastigotes and proliferate and differentiate in salaviary glands of sandfly
sandly takes another bloodmeal and transmits promastigotes
promastigotes attach to host macrophage and are phagocytosed
they become amastigotes and multiply till cell bursts and goes on to infect other cells
Visceral leishmaniasis (humans)
Often fatal if not treated
Fever, weight loss, pancytopenia, hepatosplenomegaly
enlarged liver and spleen
Treatment of visceral leishmaniasis
Pentavalent Antimonials (Pentostam, Glucantim)
Very toxic, severe adverse effects including pancreatitis
Amphotericin B
Very toxic, risk of anophylaxis in first few hours
Liposomal Amphotericin B (AmBisome)
Less toxic but very expensive (originally $2800 per treatment)
Recent donations – enough for 5% of cases
Miltefosine
Less toxic. Is the only orally administered drug for leishmaniasis
Teratogenic so is not suitable for women of child-bearing age- can be given to dogs
Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL)
Over 75% of leishmaniasis cases (1 million+ cases per year)
Not fatal but may be disfiguring and stigmatising
Number of cases and distribution has increased in recent years
cestodes
Flattened, tape-like segmented body.
indirect lifcycle- required intermediarte host in which larve develope- usually encyst in host, definitive host is usually carnivore-
Each segment is self-contained, containing one or two sets of male and female reproductive organs.
The end segment is released from the tip of the tail and can pass out in the faeces.
Tapeworms have an indirect lifecycle requiring an intermediate host where the larval stages develop.
Larval forms usually encyst within the tissues of the intermediate hosts.
Taenia saginata
Indirect life-cycle
Humans are the definitive host
Tapeworm in intestine
Cattle are the intermediate host
Cysticercus bovis cysts in muscle
Echinococcus granulosus
Canids = definitive host,
Intermediate host = large domestic species, such as cattle, sheep and horses
Canids pass the proglottids in areas where these animals graze, and upon ingestion the embryos develop into hydatid cysts.
The cysts are most commonly found in the liver and lungs, although other organs can be infected; they may never result in clinical disease, but can result in carcass condemnation at time of slaughter.
Canids = definitive host,
Intermediate host = large domestic species, such as cattle, sheep and horses
Canids pass the proglottids in areas where these animals graze, and upon ingestion the embryos develop into hydatid cysts.
The cysts are most commonly found in the liver and lungs, although other organs can be infected; they may never result in clinical disease, but can result in carcass condemnation at time of slaughter.
Echinococcus multilocularis
Not in the UK, currently
Echinococcus multilocularisis the cause of alveolar hydatid disease (aka: Alveolar echinococcosis)
Very similar life cycle to E. granulosus
Humans infected by exposure primarily to eggs
Liver cysts in humans more fulminant than E.granulosus
dogs must have tapeworm treatment before bringing them back to great britiain if they have been abroud
nematodes
Roundworms have no segments and tend to be of a white or pink-brown colour.
Prolific egg-layers and just a few worms can produce large numbers of eggs.
Toxocaraspp. eggs can survive in the environment for months or even years.
Toxocara canis in zoonotic roundworm in dogs
Toxocara cati in zoonotic roundworm in cats
Toxocara leonina in dogs, cats, foxes
direct or indirect lifecycle
pregnant bitched can spread them through fetuses and milk
bitches should be wormed during pregnancy with non tetarogenic wormer- pregnancy can trigger a low grade infection in a bitch to become much much more infectious
Ancylostoma spp = hookworms
Neglected tropical disease
what is the goal of the OIE’s
international standards?
he OIE’s international standards improve the
health and welfare of animals throughout the
world, they improve the prevention and control of
animal diseases, including those transmissible to
humans (zoonoses) and contribute to ensuring
secure and safe food systems worldwide with
lower costs and greater economic opportunities.
They play a key role in fostering global safe trade
Performance of Veterinary Services (PVS)
Pathway
The OIE’s capacity building flagship programme -
Performance of Veterinary Services (PVS) Path-
way – offers countries with a series of proven
tools and methods to evaluate, plan and provide
estimated costs for improving their national Vet-
erinary Services.
PVS Pathway empowers na-
tional Veterinary Services by providing them with
a comprehensive understanding of their strengths
and weaknesses using a globally consistent meth-
odology based on international standards - a use-
ful external perspective that can reveal gaps, in-
efficiencies and opportunities for innovation. This
enables countries to take ownership and prioritize
improvements to their animal health system
The World Trade Organisation (WTO)
WTO is the only international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations
Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland; created in 1995 (predecessor was GATT)
164 member countries – covers 98% of world trade
WTO agreements are therefore negotiated and signed by most of the world’s trading nations and ratified in their parliaments
It also settle trade disputes between nations, and reduces arbitrary trade barriers
Seeks to ensure trading is fair and non-discriminatory
WTO supports developing countries seeking to trade, especially through transition arrangements
Overall goal - ensure that trade flows smoothly, predictably and as freely as possible
WTO Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (WTO SPS)
Extract of the opening paragraphs:
‘Reaffirming that no Member should be prevented from adopting or enforcing measures necessary to protect human, animal or plant life or health, subject to the requirement that these measures are not applied in a manner which would constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination between Members where the same conditions prevail or a disguised restriction on international trade;
Desiring to improve the human health, animal health and phytosanitary situation in all Members;
Noting that sanitary and phytosanitary measures are often applied on the basis of bilateral agreements or protocols …’
Codex Alimentarius – the ‘Food Code’
1963: The Codex Alimentarius Commission (the Commission) was established by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO)
Now has 188 Member Countries
229 intergovernmental and international non-governmental organizations are accredited as observers
Main work - the development of international food standards, guidelines, and codes
of practice to protect the health of consumers and ensure fair practices in the food trade
International food safety standards established by the Commission are explicitly recognized in the WTO SPS Agreement.
Travelling into the EU or NI with a pet from Great Britain requierments
Now that the UK has left the European Union, we are no longer part of the EU Pet Travel Scheme (EU Pet Travel Regulation 576/2013)
Must meet EU requirements for entry (dogs, cats, ferrets)
The pet needs:
A microchip for identification
A valid rabies vaccination (with record)
An animal health certificate (or valid pet passport not issued in GB, if accepted in that country)
Tapeworm treatment (for dogs travelling directly to NI, Ireland, Finland, Norway or Malta)
Travelling into Great Britain (GB) with a pet from the EU requierments
Now that the UK has left the European Union, we are no longer part of the EU Pet Travel Scheme (EU Pet Travel Regulation 576/2013)
Must meet GB requirements for entry (dogs, cats, ferrets)
Coming in from the EU, or returning to GB from the EU, the pet needs:
A microchip for identification
A valid rabies vaccination (with record)
Valid pet passport or health certificate
Tapeworm treatment (usually for dogs)
Quarantine for up to 4 months if do not follow the rules; or return to where came from; or euthanasia
Exporting equines from GB to the EU or NI requierments
Current requirements are that you need to:
Book an appointment with an Official Veterinarian (OV) to get blood tests taken on time
Book an agent/transporter and tell them when plan to travel – may need more time to plan travel through an EU border control post (BCP)
Apply for an export health certificate (EHC)
Get equines tested for certain diseases
Meet isolation and residency requirements
Check you have the right equine identification (ID)
Be aware of EU border rules
Check that the person transporting the animals has the correct documentation
Check if you need an export welfare declaration
Get a county parish holding (CPH) number
The RCVS 10 Principles of Certification
- A veterinarian should certify only those matters which:
a) are within his or her own knowledge;
b) can be ascertained by him or her personally;
c) are the subject of supporting evidence from an authorised veterinarian who has personal knowledge of the matters in question; or
d) are the subject of checks carried out by an Officially Authorised Person (OAP) (see Annex 21.A).
- Veterinarians should not issue a certificate that might raise questions of a possible conflict of interest.
- A veterinarian should only sign certificates that are written in a language they understand.
- A veterinarian should not certify that there has been compliance with the law of another country or jurisdiction unless the provisions of that law are set out clearly on the certificate or have been provided to them by the Competent Authority in writing.
- A veterinarian should only sign original certificates. Where there is a legal or official requirement for a certified copy or duplicate (marked as such) these can be provided.
- When signing a certificate, a veterinarian should ensure that:
a) the certificate contains no deletions or alterations, other than those which are indicated on the certificate to be permissible, and subject to such changes being initialled and stamped by the certifying veterinarian;
b) no section of the certificate is left incomplete;
c) the certificate includes not only their signature but also, in clear lettering, their name, qualifications and address and (where appropriate) their official or practice stamps;
d) the certificate includes the date on which the certificate was signed and issued and (where appropriate) the time for which the certificate will remain valid.
- Certificates should be written in simple terms which are easy to understand.
- Certificates should be:
a) clear and concise;
b) integrated, whole and indivisible;
c) given a unique identifier; and
d) copied and retained with all relevant records.
- Certificates should not use words or phrases which are capable of more than one interpretation.
- Certificates should clearly identify the subject being certified.
RCVS: The four C’s of Certification
CAUTION - Exercise caution before putting your signature on a document!
CLARITY - Be absolutely clear about what you are being asked to sign
CERTAINTY – Are you certain on what you are attesting? Is it correct?
CHALLENGE – If you are challenged, what is your defence?
Activities of Veterinary Services in primary production according to WOAH
presence on farms and collaboration with farmers, Veterinary Services play a key role in ensuring that animals are healthy and kept under good sanitary and hygienic conditions. Veterinary Services also play a key role in biosecurity and early detection, surveillance and treatment of animal diseases, including conditions of public health significance.
Veterinary Services provide direction to farmers on practices that prevent or minimise physical and chemical hazards (for example, mycotoxins, environmental contaminants and pesticide residues) in primary production, including feed.
Veterinary Services play a central role in ensuring the responsible and prudent use of veterinary medicinal products, including antimicrobial agents
Activities of Veterinary Services in Slaughter, processing and distribution according to WOAH
ensuring that these activities, including meat inspection, minimise foodborne risks to public health. This may be provided by supervision and verification of process control and direct involvement in operational activities such as ante-and post-mortem inspection. Slaughterhouse/abattoir inspection of live animals and their carcasses plays a key role both in the surveillance network for animal diseases and zoonoses, and in ensuring the safety and suitability of meat and animal by-products for their intended uses. Control or reduction of biological hazards of public health and animal health importance by ante- and post-mortem meat inspection is a core responsibility of Veterinary Services.
Veterinary Services may be responsible for overseeing the control measures during processing and distribution of food of animal origin. They also play an important role in raising the awareness of food producers, processors and distributors regarding measures required to assure food safety.
Activities of Veterinary Services in Assurance schemes and certification of food of animal origin for international trade according to WOAH
mportant role in overseeing assurance schemes and an essential role in certifying that food of animal origin complies with animal health and food safety standards.
Other responsible agencies may also be involved in providing assurances and certification of food of animal origin (for example, pasteurisation of milk products) for international trade.
Activities of Veterinary Services in Foodborne disease outbreaks according to WOAH
investigation of, and response to, foodborne disease outbreaks which may be attributable to or involve animal products, including the implementation of control measures. This work should be carried out in close collaboration with public health professionals, analysts, epidemiologists, food producers, processors and traders and any others involved.
Because of the global nature of the food trade, Veterinary Services should work with other national agencies in reporting to international emergency foodborne disease networks, such as the International Network of Food Safety Authorities (INFOSAN), and in utilising such information for preparedness.
In respect of ante- and post-mortem inspection as a component of meat hygiene, responsibilities of Veterinary Services include
risk assessment and risk management;
establishment of policies and standards;
design and management of inspection programmes;
assurance and certification of appropriate delivery of inspection and compliance activities;
dissemination of information throughout the meat production chain.
food saftey considerations when Rearing livestock for food
Minimise hide/fleece contamination – weather, husbandry system, diet, parasite control
Only use non-contaminated feed e.g. avoid Salmonella contamination, chemicals
Medicine stewardship and precisely observe the withdrawal periods
Minimise stress – compromised welfare affects meat quality
Food Chain Information (FCI) - available to FBO and OV in the abattoir in advance
Ante-Mortem (‘before death’) Inspection
First inspection of the livestock on arrival
Identify diseased, visibly contaminated etc.
Decisions re isolation, slaughter, cleaning- production may need to be slowed for particularly dirty batches
Dirty pens identified – action by Food Business Operator (FBO)
Critical control point (CCP)
Food Chain Information (FCI)
FCI required for all animals to be presented for slaughter
Used by the abattoir (FBO) to assess (in advance) potential hazards posed by the animals coming in for slaughter – make decision on acceptance or adjustments required
Food business operator (FBO) must evaluate the FCI and make available to the OV without delay
OV must review the FCI before ante-mortem inspection – take note of any issues
apropriate disease managment? treated with anything that could cause residue?
primary producer sends fci- its checked by food buisness operator - its assed by ov
the am and pm findings are recorded and made available to primary producer- infor informs primary production
Clean Livestock Policy
Prof Hugh Pennington (Uni. of Aberdeen) investigated an E. coli O157 outbreak in central Scotland
Outbreak source: butcher’s shop in Lanarkshire
Nov 96 until Jan 97 – 490 cases; 18 deaths linked to the outbreak
Cross-contamination between cooked and uncooked meats in the shop
Emphasised importance of clean cattle presented for slaughter and hygiene practices within the abattoir
Contamination – what are we concerned about?
Campylobacter spp.
Salmonella spp.
Vero-cytotoxin producing Escherichia coli O157 (VTEC)
Yersinia enterocolitica
Clostridium perfringens
Listeria monocytogenes
CATEGORY 1 - CLEAN AND DRY
CATEGORY 2 - SLIGHTLY DIRTY- some treatment needed
CATEGORY 3 – DIRTY Cattle in this condition will be rejected from slaughter unless additional control measures are put in place to avoid contamination of the meat during the slaughter process such as clipping the hide in the lairage – cost/welfare implications
CATEGORY 4 - VERY DIRTY Cattle in this category will be rejected for slaughter except in exceptional circumstances e.g. animal welfare grounds, disease control reasons
CATEGORY 5 - FILTHY AND WETCattle in this category should be rejected for slaughter
How does exterior contamination reach the meat?
Hide must be rolled outwards when coming off, and the exterior must not fold back onto carcass – clips sometimes used to prevent rollback
Slaughter line operatives removing hide must keep hands clean and wash between handling each carcass
Must maintain clean knives by regularly rotating and sterilizing them in boiling water scald tanks at workstations
OV antemortem welfare checks
Official Veterinarians (OVs) conduct checks to ensure that there are no issues concerning the welfare of animals presented for slaughter
These can take place:
When animals are still on the farm – in advance of transport to the abattoir
During transport to the abattoir – random or targeted checks
When the animals arrive at the slaughterhouse – unloading, vehicle check
In the abattoir lairage - handling and provisions
Up to the point of slaughter – stunning effectiveness and the act of slaughter (bleeding out)
CCTV mandatory in English abattoirs since 2018
srm
specified risk materials
e.g spinal cord for bse
Slaughter/’sticking’
Dirty equipment to be avoided - clean and sterilized – not less than 82 celsius
Technique - 2 knife technique – cattle – skin and then blood vessels
Pigs – generally use a 1 knife sticking technique
Effective training and licensing
Effective supervision
Oesophageal sealing - ‘Rodding’
To control escape of GIT contents from oesophagus
Free the oesophagus, then rubber ring or tie applied using a stainless steel rodder up the length of the oesophagus
Sheep – oesophageal clips used more often; pigs – no sealing
Must be in the correct position – oesophagus-rumen junction
Failure = leakage = contamination of carcass – food safety
Training and supervision
“Bunging”
Anal resection and tying
Completed after hide removal if upward hide puller used (and before if downward puller)
Freed and tied or bagged with elastic band
Protected rectum pushed down into the abdominal cavity
Controls faecal leakage from anus onto the carcass
Hide/fleece removal
Physical process = sheep, cattle
Hand washing and equipment sterilisation between carcasses vital
Mechanized system = better hygiene
Use of plastic sheeting/clips to prevent hide touching exposed meat
Roll out of hide/fleece – avoid contact with meat
Evisceration
One-piece removal of abdominal organs (stomach, liver, bladder etc)
Bursting of the viscera = major contamination due to potentially substantial leakage
‘Pluck’ removal – lungs, trachea, heart - hang together for inspection
Skilled removal required – operative training and attention to detail
Milk spot liver
migration of Ascaris suum
Washing carcasses
Aesthetic only - blood, bone dust
NOT to be used for contamination - must be trimmed, removed with a knife
Not a substitute for good practice i.e. don’t make a mess and then aim to wash it all off!
Minimal water, at low pressure – this is not pressure washing!
Wash from top to bottom of the carcass in a downward direction
Refrigeration/Chilling
Major CCP (Critical Control Point)
Increases shelf life, slows spoilage
Slows/prevents bacterial multiplication
Surface drying of carcass and low temperatures inhibit bacteria
Must have adequate facilities/capacity for throughput
Ideally no contact between carcasses – spacing to allow air flow
Chemical reactions following slaughter: pH drop
stop- No blood supply - oxygen and glucose supply to muscles stops
Oxidative pathways stop
start-Anaerobic glycolysis starts – glycogen stores metabolised to try to keep synthesizing ATP
Pyruvate produced as a by-product of glycogen metabolism
drop- Pyruvate metabolised to produce lactic acid in muscles
pH falls from 7.2 to 5.6 (acidification) as lactic acid accumulates
Chemical reactions following slaughter: energy
energy- Anaerobic glycolysis – produces much less energy
Energy stored as ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
relaxed-ATP levels therefore decrease after slaughter
Energy needed to keep muscles relaxed
contract- Actin and myosin combine irreversibly = actomyosin
Muscles contract – ‘rigor mortis’ sets in
Anaerobic glycolysis
Most active/well-nourished muscles first i.e. heart (within 1 hour), head, neck
Rigor reached in most skeletal muscles in 9-12 hours
Reaches maximum in roughly 20-24 hours (shorter for pigs)
Influenced by:
- Atmospheric temperature
- Health status of animal prior to slaughter
- Muscle acidity prior to death
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) hydrolysis
ATP is the “energy currency” of the cell
ATP + H2O ADP + Pi + H+ + Energy
Hydrolysis of a phosphate bond yields the energy for cellular processes
ATP hydrolysis breaks the bond between actin and myosin during muscle contraction
It’s needed to keep muscle in a relaxed state
Acidification – the drop in pH after slaughter
ATP + H2O ADP + Pi + H+ + Energy
H+ ions are produced – acid – muscles become acidified, as no blood supply to remove
Muscle pH drops from 7.2 to 5.6 peri-mortem
This drop in pH creates the taste and texture of fresh meat
Meat quality very important – rate and extent of acidification greatly influences it
What happens to ATP and muscle after slaughter?
Muscle tissue does not immediately die
Catabolic reactions continue to attempt to keep up energy levels
ATP therefore continues to be utilized, but becomes depleted with time
Instead of actin and myosin linkages being continually broken, they become permanent - muscle extensibility decreases
Onset of rigor mortis – “stiffness of death” (Latin term)
Factors affecting glycogen levels at slaughter
Excessive exercise before slaughter
Stress/fatigue and amount of rest pre-slaughter – travel distances
Diet - high sugar levels fed to pigs
Health status – a different type of stress
Impact of fatigue/stress pre-slaughter
e.g. Hunted deer, stressed cattle in an abattoir lairage - STRESSORS
Little or no glycogen (and ATP) left
Less lactic acid produced – pH does not drop so much
Rigor onset faster due to low ATP levels
Tough meat as a result – eating quality reduced
Dark Firm Dry (DFD) meat
Also sometimes known as ‘Dark Cutting Beef’ (DCB)
Part or whole carcass
Chronic pre-slaughter stress, exhaustion (24-48 hours)
Mixing batches/market/loading/transport etc.
More common with excitable temperaments
Stress = low glycogen = high pH = 6.8
High pH = oxygen debt = dark meat
High pH = poor keeping quality
Same nutritive value, BUT tough to eat, less flavour
Spoilage of DFD meat occurs faster, shelf life reduced
Used for manufacturing/ further processing purposes
Marked loss of value of the meat – economic consequences
Pale Soft Exudative (PSE) meat
All species, but more common in pigs (and poultry)
Has been linked to a single autosomal recessive gene in pigs – breeding and selection to avoid this gene
Acute stress = rapid glycolysis
Stress -susceptible pigs + rough handling prior to slaughter etc.
Rapid fall in pH (5.5 reached in 1 hour)
Carcass temperature higher than normal
Changes in muscle proteins - denaturation - loss of water binding capacity – meat oozes water
Protein changes = excessive drip = increased weight loss
Refractive index changes = pale colour
Tougher texture on cooking
Downgrading or possible condemnation
Loss of meat value – economic consequences
Minimising DFD/PSE occurrence
Gentle handling (farm to abattoir)
Loading ramps essential
Avoid mixing batches
Good lairage design
Food/water available
Sticks/goads not used
Isolate aggressive animals
Use of fine sprays - reduces fighting in pigs
Stock selection - genetics
Diet (e.g. sugar levels)
Timing of journey
Rest time in lairage
Physical properties of meat quality - Colour
Due to myoglobin - bright red colour in presence of oxygen (blooming) is synonymous with ‘freshness’ at retail
More myoglobin in slow muscles than fast
DFD meat with high water holding capacity makes meat turgid and reduces oxygen penetration, hence no blooming and bright red colour
Paleness in PSE pork is caused by (a) increased of light scattering due to released water (b) enhanced protein denaturation (c) increased conversion to pale brown metmyoglobin
Results = consumer rejection of the product
Physical properties of meat quality – Water holding capacity
The pH of meat influences the extent muscle proteins are electrically charged - necessary to attract and hold the dissociated form of water
Most proteins in meat lose their charge between pH 5.1 and 5.5, which is close to ultimate pH of meat. In this range muscle releases water
Therefore, DFD meat has higher water holding capacity as has higher pH
DFD advantage in meat processing - cheaper and less weight loss
In PSE pork, drip (water) loss is severe and unsightly – consumer rejection
Eating properties connected to meat quality - Succulence
Succulence (‘juiciness’) is an eating quality, often related to the level of fat and moisture in cooked meat
Excessively lean carcass confers less juicy meat – less fat to provide taste
Perceived tenderness and succulence can be improved by simply increasing the amount of fat – ‘marbling’ in beef
Cold shortening (CS)
Rapid chilling reduces microbial growth, evaporation and drip loss, but risks cold shortening (CS)
CS occurs when muscle cools below 10C before rigor mortis
Muscle fibres shorten by as much as third of original length
To prevent CS:
Beef and lamb: not below 10C in the first 10h – pace the chilling speed
Pork: not below 10C in the first 3h
Tenderness and conditioning
Within first few hours of slaughter, before rigor mortis, muscle is tender
Toughness sets in at rigor mortis
After several days of cold storage original tender state is restored. This is known as ‘conditioning’
Conditioning is closely related to structural breakdown of muscle proteins, through released endogenous proteases activated by calcium
Electrical stimulation
Electrical current pulsed through the carcass
Electrode in neck - earthed on overhead rail
Meat ages faster – i.e. becomes tender faster
Stimulates muscle to contract = glycogen/ATP used up = pH falls
Accelerates tenderness/reduces ageing times
Reduces storage times and weight loss
Avoids cold shortening with more rapid chilling
Promotes better flavour and colour
Allows hot boning = rapid chilling of cuts
‘Tenderstretch hanging’:
Making beef more tender, faster
Stretching = tenderising [Shortening = toughening]
Carcass suspended from hook in the obturator foramen
Limb relaxed, muscles do not shorten
Suspended within 90 mins of slaughter
For a minimum of 24 hours
Accelerates tenderness by about 3 weeks at 2 Celsius
Setting’ of the carcass
Setting = rigor mortis + fat hardening
Chilling aids fat hardening
Tests - lift foreleg, feel firmness of carcase (hit flanks, flick diaphragm)
Sheep carcasses set more firmly – with very hard fat as well
Poor setting = problems = TOTAL CONDEMNATION e.g. fevered animal
Significance of poor carcass setting-
Poor keeping quality
Deep spoilage
Poor setting often indicates undetected illness in the animal at slaughter
Carcass loses shape = more difficult to butcher
NB - Usually a severe PM judgment – condemnation if does not set
broiler productiom cycle
Broilers – typically highly integrated production – broiler breeders, hatchery, rearers, feed mills, slaughter plant – often all the same company
Elite breeding stock, Great-grandparent (GGP), grandparent (GP) – broiler breeders (P)
Broilers – placed at day-old on farm - typically slaughtered at between approx. 35 and 42 days
layer production cycle
free range, barn, caged (enriched cages) – organic/non-organic
Layer birds and broiler breeders will end up in the meat sector as well – older birds - processing
what is the incubation time for chickens and turkeys in hatchey incubators
Eggs in the hatchery incubators – 21 day incubation for chickens, 28 days for turkeys
Poultry slaughter line process when eater bath stunning is used
Reception and unloading
Ante-mortem inspection
Shackling
Stunning
Neck cutting
Scalding
De-feathering (plucking)
Inspection
Evisceration
Washing
Inspection (no health marking)
Chilling
Lairage structure and operation for poltry
Catching and transport are carefully organised for birds to arrive at a specific time
Aim - minimum waiting time in lairage as opposed to arge animals as chickens get dirty and cannot be supplied water in the crates
Consider ventilation and thermal comfort
minimise time in creat as no water, risk of contamination and lower leves of clenliness
Ante-Mortem Inspection of poultry
Veterinary examination at rearing premises (‘the holding of provenance’) - health certificate following checks by an OV (Article 5, EU Reg 2019/624)
Health certificate travels with the birds to slaughter - Meat Hygiene Inspector (MHI) checks identification, health/welfare check
OR
Food Chain Information (FCI) required – production report from farm of origin
Flock must be under veterinary supervision
Producer produces report (electronic) – submit to FBO and then OV - available 24 hours before slaughter
Abattoir OV conducts ante-mortem inspection at abattoir - representative sample
Must take place less than 24 hrs before slaughter
Check the paperwork – are you looking at the correct consignment? – FCI and FBO code
birds will be in creats so-
Listen to the birds
Look at their posture, wattle colour, discharges, cleanliness, dead on arrival?
anything that makes them not safe fof human consumption
Notifiable disease? – AI, ND
Food Chain Information for poultry
Farm of origin
Intended date of slaughter
Number of birds for slaughter
Flock mortality % – should be very low
Diseases diagnosed on farm
Results of any laboratory tests – Campylobacter?
Any medication given – withdrawal period observed? Residues suspicion?
Previous post-mortem results – history
Electrical stunning - waterbath – legal requirements
WATOK (England) Regs 2005, Schedule 1, Part 5
28. No person may use a waterbath stunner to stun poultry unless—
(a) the level of the water in the waterbath has been adjusted in order to ensure that there is good contact with each bird’s head;
(b) the strength and duration of the current used is such that the poultry are immediately rendered unconscious and remain so until dead;
(c) where poultry are stunned in groups in a waterbath, a voltage sufficient to produce a current strong enough to ensure that every bird is stunned is maintained;
(d) appropriate measures are taken to ensure that the current passes efficiently, in particular that there are good electrical contacts;
(e) the waterbath stunner is adequate in size and depth for the type of poultry being stunned; and
(f) a person is available to ascertain whether the waterbath stunner has been effective in stunning the poultry and, if it has not been effective, will either stun or kill the poultry without delay.
quality of stun can be assed by corneal reflex
What happens to the waste material? Animal by-products (ABP)
ABP comprises entire bodies or any part or product of an animal which is not intended for human consumption – public health protection essential
Three categories – Category 1, 2 and 3
Defined in EU legislation – Regulation (EC) 1069/2009, implemented by Regulation (EC) 142/2011
categorised accorded to risk- 1 most risk, 3 least
Category 1 – mainly applicable to ruminants (Specified Risk Material)
Category 2 – e.g poultry DOAs, rejects at post-mortem inspection
Category 3 – poultry heads, feathers
Monitoring welfare at slaughter for poultry
The slaughter plant can be used to monitor bird welfare – farm and transport
Dead on arrival (DOAs)
Handling – fractured wings, fractured legs, carcass bruising
Skin lesions – scratches, breast blisters, breast burn, hock burn, FPD (contact dermatitis)
Council Directive 2007/43/EC of 28 June 2007 laying down minimum rules for the protection of chickens kept for meat production
Annex III
‘2. Post-mortem inspection
In the context of the controls performed under the Regulation (EC) No
854/2004, the Official Veterinarian shall evaluate the results of the post-mortem inspection to identify other possible indications of poor welfare conditions such as abnormal levels of contact dermatitis, parasitism and systemic illness in the holding or the unit of the house of the holding of origin.’
Footpad dermatitis (FPD)
First reported 1980s in broilers and turkeys
Welfare issue – painful necrotic lesions on hock and foot – use as a welfare indicator
Economic – downgrading of a saleable product – damaged feet – prolonged contact with litter high in moisture and ammonia
Causes? Complicated epidemiology, some conflicting research findings
Wet litter (drinkers, disease), genetic predisposition, litter depth, nutritional deficiencies, production system (organic v conventional)?
Contamination – what are we concerned about?
Campylobacter spp.
Salmonella spp.
Verocytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli O157 (VTEC)
Yersinia enterocolitica
Clostridium perfringens
Listeria monocytogenes
Salmonella in pigs
can be spread to outdoor pigs by birds
Pigs carry Salmonella bacteria on tonsils and in caecum
Faecal contamination after slaughter is possible
Salmonella in pork a common cause of human foodborne infections
ELISA tests on meat juice allows herd detection
How to control? Primary production or after slaughter? Danes have had some success with improved slaughter hygiene: See Alban (2013), Veterinary J. 197, 529-530
History of little success in control - a very challenging organism to deal with!
Epidemiology of Salmonella serovars
Investigated worldwide distribution and occurrence of Salmonella serovars in 4 animal-based foods: pork, poultry, beef, seafood
S. Typhimurium 2nd most common EU isolate in humans and 3rd in USA – generalist serovar with global distribution
S. Typhimurium most often associated with pork
S. Enteritidis most common human isolate in EU – mostly chicken meat, then eggs
S. Anatum most common serovar in beef worlwide, esp. Latin America
s.dublin- cause of abortion in cattle
Escherichia coli O157:H7 in food
Western USA – large outbreak in 1992-93
More than 700 people infected, 4 deaths
Assoc. with eating beef burgers (minced beef ‘patties’) in fast-food chain
Infectious dose calculated to be < 700 organisms in raw burger before cooking i.e. low dose (prob. 10-100)
Trace-back: Burgers linked to a processing plant in California - made on 19 Nov 1992
Detected poor hygiene practices in the supplying abattoirs and boning plant
Common foodborne infectious agents - viruses
Hepatitis A virus (HAV)-
Shellfish (water contamination)
[Food handlers]
Very common viral cause of foodborne illness
Hepatitis E virus (HEV)-
Pork
Gaining prominence and attention
Norovirus (NoV)-
Shellfish
[Food handlers, fresh produce]
Deemed the commonest cause of foodborne disease outbreaks in USA in 2017
Noroviruses are a very common cause of gastroenteritis in humans
Noroviruses have also been found in animals, and transfer between humans an animals likely to be occurring in both directions
The ‘hygiene package’ of EU Regulations – 852, 853
Reg (EC) No 852/2004 – The hygiene of foodstuffs
Article 1 summarised:
Primary responsibility food safety rests with food business operator (FBO)
Food safety starts with primary production, and must be maintained throughout the food chain
Particularly important to maintain the cold chain for certain foods
Hygiene procedures must be based on HACCP principles
Need microbiological criteria and temp controls based on science
Imported foods must be at least as hygienic as EU-produced foods
Main provisions found in Annex 1 of the Regulation – general hygiene requirements for primary production: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/eur/2004/852/annex/I
Need to control hazards – esp. zoonoses and contamination
Integrated food safety – main responsibility with the FBO, not the government!
Reg (EC) No 853/2004 – Specific hygiene rules for food of animal origin
Reg (EU) 2017/625 – Official controls and other official activities performed to ensure the application of feed and food law, rules on animal health and welfare … (Replaces 854/2004)
EC 853/2004 – Slaughter hygiene
Reg 853/2004, Annex III, Chapter IV
4. Animals must be clean.
7. (b)(i) During the removal of hides and fleeces, contact between the outside of the skin and the carcase must be prevented.
7. (b) (ii) Operators and equipment coming into contact with the outer surface of the hides and fleece must not touch the meat.
10. The carcases must not contain visible faecal contamination. Any visible contamination must be removed without delay by trimming or alternative mans having an equivalent effect.
11. Carcases and offal must not come into contact with floors, walls or work stands.
16. (b) Parts unfit for human consumption must be removed as soon as possible from the clean sector of the establishment.
Refrigeration as a control measure
EC Regulation 853/2004 (Annex 3, Chapter 7):
‘Post-mortem inspection must be followed immediately by chilling in the slaughterhouse to ensure a temperature throughout the meat of not more than 3 °C for offal and 7 °C for other meat along a chilling curve that ensures a continuous decrease of the temperature.’ Meat and offal must then remain at these temperatures during storage
Reg. EC 2073/2005
Testing: Microbiological criteria
Article 4: ‘Food business operators shall perform testing as appropriate against the microbiological criteria set out in Annex I, when they are validating or verifying the correct functioning of their procedures based on HACCP principles and good hygiene practice.’
Annex 1 specifies the microbiological criteria for foodstuffs
Sampling and analysis must be conducted by the FBO
Chapter 1 is about Food Safety Criteria – testing food products
Chapter 2 is about Process Hygiene Criteria – testing processing procedures
Minced meat and milk powder-
Salmonella- Not detected in 25g- Product placed on the market within their shelf-life
Ready-to-eat infant food-
Listeria monocytogenes
- Not detected in 25g- Product placed on the market within their shelf-life
Carcases of broiler chickens-
Campylobacter spp., limit of 1000 cfu/g in Carcases after chilling – Take action if unsatisfactory – slaughter hygiene, biosecurity on farm
Meat preparations-
E. coli- limit of 500 -5000 cfu/g or cm2 inEnd of the manufacturing process – Take action if unsatisfactory - sourcing material and/or improve production hygiene
Carcases of cattle, sheep-
Aerobic colony count- limit of 3.5-5.0 log cfu/cm2
Enterobacteriaceae- limit of 1.5-2.5 log cfu/cm2
in Carcases after dressing but before chilling – If unsatisfactory, need improvements in slaughter hygiene and review of process controls
‘The competent authority shall verify compliance with the rules and criteria laid down in this Regulation in accordance with Regulation (EC) No 882/2004, without prejudice to its right to undertake further sampling and analyses for the purpose of detecting
and measuring other micro-organisms, their toxins or metabolites, either as a verification of processes, for food suspected of being unsafe, or in the context of a risk analysis.’
The bTB granuloma
Continual movement in and out of the granuloma by host cells
[Microscopic granulomas detectable from 7-15 days after experimental infection]
NB – It’s NOT an abscess – it’s a granuloma (and granulomas are not just found in bTB)
‘The caseonecrotic granuloma is one of the hallmarks of tuberculosis’ (Waters et al. 2015)
Internal spread of M. bovis bacteria thought to be mainly through the lymphatic system
M. bovis has also been detected in bovine blood in scientific studies
Bacilli multiply and a tubercle forms around them – connective tissue enveloping bacilli and macrophages – central area of necrosis
Primary lesions often in lymph nodes - Also check for lung lesions – Rare to see generalised bTB now in UK
Decision – partial or total: reject affected parts, condemn whole carcase if both sides of the diaphragm
Mean number of bTB-like lesions in bTB reactors was 1.7 and 1.3 for in-contacts
bTB lesions most commonly found in lymph nodes (LNs) of thorax, then head, followed by abdomen
Most common LNs affected – mediastinal, retropharyngeal, tracheobronchial
25 reactors had lesions in palatine tonsils
In bTB-confirmed cattle – 27% of reactors and 9% of in-contacts had gross lesions in lungs, esp. caudal lobes
Hazard
something with the potential to cause harm
Risk
The likelihood that a hazard may occur, usually expressed as the likelihood of the consequences occurring
Control measure
Any action or activity that can be used to prevent or eliminate a food safety hazard or reduce it to an acceptable level
Monitoring
Conducting a planned sequence of observations or measurements of control parameters, to assess whether a critical control point (CCP) is under control
HACCP
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point
a system that identifies, evaluates, and controls hazards that are significant for food safety
History
NASA – Food in space
HACCP is a preventative system
US food borne outbreaks
Large manufacturing business worldwide
International requirement for trade
EU (2006) all food business
Types of physical contamination
Bones
Gristle,Tendons, Sinew
Hide, fleece
Ingested physical objects
Glass
Metal
Hard plastics
Wood
Pests
Packaging
Needles
Knives and tips
Personal items
Hair
Rail dust common
Equipment
Deliberate items
General measures to control physical contamination
- inspection of raw materials on receipt
- cleaning, washing and inspecting raw materials before use
- filtering liquids and sieving powders
- protecting filling hoppers, elevators and belts conveying open food from overhead contamination
- selecting machinery with guards that are easy to remove and clean
- avoiding temporary repairs
- employing spotters at inspection belts
- in-line magnets to collect metal fragments in pipe-work
- metal detectors for ferrous (i.e. iron) and non-ferrous metals, stainless steel
- X-ray machines
- bottle scanners
- visual checking of food before it leaves the production area
Chemical contamination
- pesticides, preservatives, mould inhibitors, agri chemicals
- veterinary medicines
- cleaning chemicals
- food additives
- perfume, scented soap
- chemical reaction between metal and acidic food
- inks, adhesives, plasticizers used in packaging
- non-food-grade machinery lubricants
General measures to control chemical contamination
- regulation, certificates of analysis and audit, withdrawal periods and verification / testing of
- correctly labelled containers in a controlled storage area separated from food
- use of un-perfumed products
- use of suitable utensils and containers
- maintenance, use of food-grade lubricants
Biological contamination
Bacteria - Pathogenic
Viruses
Yeasts
Moulds
Biological toxins
Poisonous foods
Aflatoxins
Mycotoxins
Ergot
Zoonoses?
TSEs?
can be from-
- Animal itself, gut, hide, fleece, skin, clinical pathology
- people
- equipment
- air and dust
- soil
- pests
- water
- food waste
Control of bacterial contamination
- protecting food from contamination
- preventing bacterial multiplication
- destroying bacteria
- removing contaminated food from the human food chain
Control of allergens
- auditing raw material suppliers
- only using reputable suppliers
- maintaining up-to-date allergen information on all raw materials on site
- clearly labelling packaging
- separate storage of raw materials that may contain allergens
- using separate processing equipment, utensils and production areas
- segregating staff in sensitive areas
- batch traceability for all raw materials and finished product
- separation and disposal procedures for contaminated raw materials and finished product
- specific allergy awareness training for staff
- product recall procedures
- visitor information
Article 5 –Hazard analysis and critical control points
Regulation (EC) No. 852/2004 on the hygiene of foodstuffs
- Everybody must do HACCP based on Codex HACCP principles
Farming has a derogation although some still do it under things like GlobalGAP - consistent across EU
- additional requirements:
– procedures for verification
– establishment of documentation and record keeping
Codex Alimentarius Commission(Codex)
- international body created by FAO and WHO of United Nations
- aims:
– to protect the health of consumers
– to ensure fair practices in international trade
– to issue guidance and codes of practice - recommends a HACCP-based system
Basis of world trade sanitary and phytosanitary measures agreed.
HACCP – 12 step process with 7 key principles
Assemble the HACCP team
Describe the product
Identify intended use
Construct flow diagram
On-site confirmation of flow diagram
Conduct a hazard analysis and consider control measures
Determine the Critical Control Points (CCPs)
Establish critical limits for each CCP
Establish a monitoring procedure for each CCP
Establish corrective actions
Establish verification procedures
Establish documentation and record keeping
determine critical control points
conduct hazard analysis
estblish critical limits
establish monitorung system
establish documentation
establish verificatin process
HACCP pre-requisites
- supplier specifications
- design and structure of premises and equipment
- personal hygiene
- cleaning, disinfection and the control of waste
- pest control
- storage and stock control
- traceability and product recall
- staff training
- customer complaints
- visitors
Think about pre-requisites as all the things you need for your factory to work. HACCP is specific to single products through single processes.
A critical control point (CCP)
- a step in the process where it is essential to prevent or eliminate a food safety hazard or reduce it to an acceptable level
Early attempts at HACCP had meat businesses having everything as a CCP
Hide removal, clean livestock, gut removal, TSE aspects and waste control etc. later iterations and learning made them realise that these were prerequisite to the processes and now there are few ccps if any - steps where there are significant hazards that are CRITICAL
- if not controlled they could make the final product unsafe and cause harm to the consumer
- steps that are not critical (i.e. control points) are still important and require control
- critical steps need extra control through the HACCP system
- no further step in the process that will control the hazard
HACCP review
every 6 months/12 months if no changes
* immediately if outbreak of food-borne illness or similar complaints
* if there have been any changes in the following:
– raw materials
– recipe or formulation
– processing methods
– equipment
– packaging
– method of distribution
– organisational structure
– legal requirements
Mycotoxins and (maize) silage
maize silage is prone to fungal growth when not properly made or stored which can lead to injestions of mycotoxins
aspergullus fusarium- damp conditions
produces mycotoxin which stays in silage
Animal feed – manufacturer responsibilities
Regulation (EC) 183/2005 in the EU and adopted into UK legislation
Laying down requirements for feed hygiene
Article 4:
‘Feed business operators shall ensure that all stages of production, processing and distribution under their control are carried out in accordance with Community legislation, national law compatible therewith, and good practice. They shall ensure, in particular, that they satisfy the relevant hygiene requirements laid down in this Regulation’
[‘Feed hygiene’ is defined as ‘the measures and conditions necessary to control hazards and to ensure fitness for animal consumption of a feed, taking into account its intended use.’]
Animal feed – farmer responsibilities
Regulation (EC) 183/2005 in the EU and adopted into UK legislation
Laying down requirements for feed hygiene
Article 4:
‘When feeding food-producing animals, farmers shall take measures and adopt procedures to keep the risk of biological, chemical and physical contamination of feed, animals and animal products as low as reasonably achievable.’
Chemical contamination of food
Animal-derived food products for sale to consumers at retail could contain chemical contaminants – a non-infectious hazard
Strict controls required throughout the food chain to prevent/detect
Contaminated feed may be the primary problem
Residues monitoring is required to provide consumer assurance and detect illegal or accidental contamination
Organochlorine compounds including PCBs
Organophosphorus compounds
Chemical elements (Cu, Cd, Pb, Hg)
Mycotoxins
Dyes (aquaculture – e.g. crystal violet, malachite green)
Others (e.g. fipronil)- vet medicine residues
Notable chemical animal feed contaminations
1. PBB (Polybrominated Biphenyl) in Michigan, USA in 1973
- PCB (Polychlorinated Biphenyls) in USA in 1979
- PCB/Dioxin in Belgium in 1999
- PCB/Dioxin in Ireland in 2008
PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyl) and dioxins
Toxic chemicals which persist in the environment for years, and accumulate in animal fats – food chain contamination
PCBs - chlorinated hydrocarbons which were manufactured and used in coolants and insulators in transformers and capacitors until banned in most countries in 1980s
Dioxins – dangerous unwanted products of some industrial processes – persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
PCBs often considered alongside dioxins due to their similar health effects - carcinogenic
Contamination of raw feed ingredients by pathogens
in an assesment of Contamination of raw feed ingredients by pathogens Assessing survival times for significant viral pathogens spiked into commonly imported feed constituents or products often imported into USA concluded that The right virus paired with the right ingredient, may be a mechanism for the transboundary transport of pathogens
Contamination of feed during manufacture -
Salmonella a major problem in animal feed
Aim to prevent entry into the factory – biosecurity - rodents, birds, people, equipment
Can reduce multiplication within the plant – factory hygiene processes
Can kill the pathogen within the manufactured feed – thermal inactivation (pasteurisation) or chemical additions
Contamination of feed during on-farm storage -
Particular risks from mice, rats, pigeons, sparrows in winter period Nov - Feb
Gain access to open feed stores, consume feed and contaminate with faeces e.g., Salmonella, Cryptosporidium, MAP
Estimated that individual cattle and sheep could encounter an average of 1626 (cattle) and 814 (sheep) wildlife faeces in supplementary feed concentrates in a winter
Contamination of feed on farm - Toxoplasma -
Cats are the definitive host for the zoonotic parasite Toxoplasma gondii and shed oocysts in their faeces
This study observed cat latrines across 3 dairy farms using cameras
Repeated use of latrines by cats, particularly those closest to their feeding sites
Potential for heavy contamination of soil, straw and animal feed – T. gondii hotspots
May 2003- Salmonella Cubana detected in faecal samples from routine sampling in a fattening pig herd – Swedish Salmonella control programme
Trace-back from the pig herd – S. Cubana discovered in pig feed production line of a Swedish manufacturing plant
77 pig farms had received the contaminated feed – 49 were positive for S. Cubana
Enzootic pneumonia in pigs
Perhaps the most common pig respiratory disease worldwide
Bacterium - Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae
Clinical signs mainly seen at 8-20 weeks, although infection contracted much younger
Normally low grade chronic soft cough (unless get secondary infection)
Very high morbidity, low mortality
Commonly seen in the abattoir. Lung scoring is possible – a measure of the scale of the problem, and to assess vaccine efficacy
Clinical signs-
Typically 3-10 weeks of age
Incubation period of 2 weeks
Barking cough
Gradual spread
Lasts +/-50 days
Uneven size in the batch
Depression of growth rate and feed conversion
Pathology-
Lesions restricted to the lungs
Classic pneumonia of cranial middle and cranial portion of caudal lobe of lung and accessory lobe
Enlarged bronchial lymph nodes
Plum colour in early lesions
Well demarcated
Paler as resolve
Secondary infection common
M. hyopneumoniae present on cilia of bronchi
Literature suggests association between damaging behaviours and poor health
Enzootic pneumonia may lead to more tail/ear biting – cytokines?
Tail-bitten pigs more likely to have spinal abscesses, lung lesions – abattoir condemnation
Need to improve environmental conditions on farm
Ascaris suum in pigs - nematodes
Most common gastrointestinal worm parasite in pigs globally – up to 40cm long. Oocysts can survive 5 yrs on ground.
More common in growing pigs than mature
Heavier infections may cause clinical signs – coughing (lung migration) and poorer growth rates than expected
Economic impact - Lowered feed conversion and liver rejections at slaughter
Milk spot liver’ in pig – Ascaris suum
‘Milk spots’ – pale-coloured lesions caused by larvae migrating through the liver and causing haemorraghic foci which heal with connective tissue, eosinophils and dilated lymphatics - whitish spots
can be detected eith faecal tests and treated with anti-helminths
Liver fluke in cattle (fascioliasis) and productivity
Daily weight gain reduced by 9%
Live weight reduced by 6%
Younger animals found more severe effects of fluke on weight gain
Effects on liveweight increased with time since infection
intermediate host- galba (Lymnaea) truncatula
Relevant legislation in milk production
EC) Reg 852/2004 [H1] – hygiene of foodstuffs
Primary production (Annex I)
Maintain hygiene and minimise contamination
Covers animal health, hygiene, record keeping, storage etc.
Legal requirements for milk production – primary production – Reg (EC) 852/2004
(EC) Reg 853/2004 – specific rules for food of animal origin:
Annex III Section IX: raw milk and dairy products
Detailed legislation regarding all stages of milk production
Applies to milk harvesting, storage, transport and processing and packaging
Legal requirements for milk production – animal health and hygiene- (EC) 853/2004 [H2] Annex III, section IX
(EC) 853/2004 [H2] Annex III, section IX
Legal requirements for milk production – animal health and hygiene
dictats that
Healthy animals- No diseases communicable to humans
No udder wounds likely to contaminate milk
No obvious udder inflammation
No enteritis or fever
No diseases resulting in genital discharge
Brucellosis and bTB negative-
From cows which are brucellosis-free and bTB-negative
Milk must be heat treated if not negative herd
No unauthorised veterinary medicines-
Uphold withdrawal periods for authorised veterinary medicines
Milking procedure, storage and transport and storage-
Cleanliness, avoidance of chemical residues, healthy staff
Temperature control and maintenance of cold chain
Minimum standards and milk assessment-
Plate counts and Somatic Cell Counts (SCC) specified
Processing-
Maximum temperatures and maintenance of cold chain
Guidelines for heat treatment – pasteurisation, UHT
packaging, labling and id must be tracable and raw milk must be labled
Milk contamination risks
Microorganisms-
Bacteria
Yeasts
Algae
Foreign bodies
Faeces
Hair
Perished equipment (e.g. rubber, glass)
Chemical residues
Medicine residues
Chemical contamination risks in milk
Mycotoxins (e.g. aflatoxins)
Dioxins
Heavy metals – lead, mercury
Pesticides
Miscellaneous – e.g. melamine in China
Medicine residues in milk
Heavy financial penalties for farmers who send in contaminated milk to processor
Public health issue – AMR, toxicity
Processing issue - esp. cheese
Farmer training programmes available
Waste’ milk - residues
Milk containing antimicrobial residues – what to do with it?
Feeding it to calves is likely to be contributing to the AMR problem
Brunton et al. (2012) A survey of antimicrobial usage on dairy farms and waste milk feeding practices in England and Wales. Veterinary Record 171, 296.
2012 - 90% farms surveyed feeding it to calves
Milk pasteurisation
“Pasteurisation of milk represents one of the singularly most successful contributions to the safety of foods of animal origin.” (Holsinger et al., 1997)
First commercial set-up was in Germany in 1895
Became widespread in UK from 1950s
72-82 C for 15-30 sec (HTST)
or
63 C for 30 mins
Destroys non-spore-forming pathogens and psychotrophic spoilage bacteria
UHT (ULTRA HIGH TEMPERATURE) PROCESSING- 138-145 C for 1-10 secs- Destroys all non-spore-forming bacteria and all spores except highly heat-resistant spores
Legal requirements for milk production – primary production – Reg (EC) 852/2004
(EC) 852/2004 [H1] Annex I: Primary production (Farm)
Cleanliness- fACILITES, ANIMALS, EQUIPMET
staff- Good health – avoid contamination, adiquate training
ptable water- Water supply must be approved by local authority before use
Pest control- Avoid contamination
Hazardous waste management-Avoid contamination
Foodborne/zoonotic disease- Prevent introduction and spread (biosecurity)
Appropriate use of veterinary medicines- As per legislation e.g. withdrawal periods
Record keeping- The nature and origin of feed fed to the animals
Veterinary medicines (including WD periods)
Any disease occurrence that might affect food safety
Result from any diagnostic samples relevant to human health
any relevent reports or checks carried out
temperatures and effect of pasturisation
72-82 C for 15-30 sec (HTST)
or
63 C for 30 mins
Destroys non-spore-forming pathogens and psychotrophic spoilage bacteria
temperatures and effect of UHT (ULTRA HIGH TEMPERATURE) PROCESSING
138-145 C for 1-10 secs
Destroys all non-spore-forming bacteria and all spores except highly heat-resistant spores
list some vet roles in goverment
APHA (378 vets)
DEFRA (157 vets)
Food Standards Agency (46 vets)
Ministry of Defence (30 vets)
Home Office (17 vets)
Veterinary Medicines Directorate (20 vets)
CEFAS (3 vets)
UK Health Security Agency (1 vet)
Department for International Development (1 vet)
Defence Science Technology Laboratory (2 vets)
Defra (6) , Scottish Gov’t (9) and Wales Gov’t (5) (Total:20)
and Official Veterinarians across GB
list sme goverment institutions responble for animal welfare
Royal Army Veterinary Corps-
Responsible for health and welfare of military working dogs and horses, plus military mascots
APHA-
Manage and influence welfare cases (livestock only)
Private Vet-
Report of poor welfare on-farm
FSA/FSS-
OV notification of poor welfare at slaughter/in transport/on farm
Central Government-
Defra/W/S/NI Gov’t
Construction and revision of welfare policy
Home Office-
Inspection of research establishments
Cefas-
Welfare in Fish
Marine Science and Technology
goverment bodies responsible for veterinary medicines
UKHSA/HPS/PHW-
Provide advice to the public and industry
Home Office-
use of certain medicines for research
Central Government
Defra/W/S/NI Gov’t-
Construction and revision of policy
Cefas-
Residues in Fish
VMD-
Residues
Licensing
Pharmacovigilance
FSA/FSS-
Sampling
Private Vet-
Horse passports
Food producing animals
APHA-
Investigate
Records checks
Risk assessments
Laboratory testing – surveillance
goverment bodies responsible for notifaible disease
UKHSA/HPS/PHW-
Provide advice to the public and industry
Zoonoses
Cefas-
Fish Health Inspectorate
Investigate and stamp out disease
Central Government-
Defra/W/S/NI Gov’t
Policy development and implementation
Interface with Global Partners
FSA/FSS-
Surveillance at abattoirs
Private Vet-
May be reporting
OVs may be deployed
APHA-
Surveillance
Disease report cases
Research and development
Home Office-
Licence research
Vets in State Veterinary Medicine
Notifiable disease surveillance and control e.g. bovine TB, Foot and Mouth Disease, avian influenza
Animal welfare policy, implementation and enforcement
Trade standard-setting and certification - animals and animal products
Export and import of animals and animal products – border controls
Zoonoses – companion, farm, zoo, wildlife – all under the ‘One Health’ umbrella
Food safety and security – meat hygiene, animal products, ‘farm to fork’, traceability
TRACES
TRAde Control and Expert System – European Commission
Online platform for sanitary and phytosanitary certification
Importation of animals, animal products, food and feed of non-animal origin and plants into the European Union
Intra-EU trade and EU exports of animals and certain animal products
Traceability - monitoring movements of consignments; within the EU and non-EU countries
Information exchange - between trade partners and competent authorities to share information on consignments
Risk management - reacting rapidly to health threats by tracing the movements of consignments and enabling the management of rejected consignments
Animal Disease Notification System (ADNS) - EU
A disease management tool providing immediate alerts to Member States
Can make rapid responses in relation to trade implications
Legal basis of notification is Regulation (EU) 2020/2002, Article 3:
‘Member States shall notify the Commission and the other Member States within 24 hours of confirmation of any primary outbreak in their territory of a listed disease …’
‘The notifications referred to … shall be submitted electronically via the ADIS.’
what is The legal basis of the EU Pet Travel Scheme (dogs, cats , ferrets):
Regulation (EU) No 576/2013 on the non-commercial movement of pet animals and repealing Regulation (EC) No 998/2003
Article 6
Conditions applicable to the non-commercial movement of pet animals of the species listed in Part A of Annex I
Pet animals of the species listed in Part A of Annex I shall not be moved into a Member State from another Member State unless they fulfil the following conditions:
they are marked in accordance with Article 17(1); ( Implanted transponder (id chip) or readable tatoo)
they have received an anti-rabies vaccination that complies with the validity requirements set out in Annex III;
they comply with any preventive health measures for diseases or infections other than rabies adopted pursuant to Article 19(1); (Other disease prevention e.g. Echinococcus multilocularis – tapeworm)
they are accompanied by an identification document duly completed and issued in accordance with Article 22. (Pet passport)
What are antimicrobials?
Any substance which kills or inhibits the growth of microbes
Includes antibiotics, antifungals, antivirals, antiparasitics (in widest sense)
Resistance can already be intrinsically present, or can develop over time
antimicrobials that Affect bacterial cell wall synthesis
Beta-lactam antibiotics, bacitracin, glycopeptides
antimicrobials that Inhibit bacterial protein synthesis
Aminoglycosides, chloramphenicol, lincosamides, macrolides, tetracyclines
antimicrobials that Affect bacterial cell membrane function
Polymixins
antimicrobials that Affect bacterial nucleic acid function
Fluoroquinolones, nitroimidazoles, rifampin, nitrofurans
antimicrobials that Affect intermediate metabolism
Sulphonamides, Trimethoprim
What is antimicrobial resistance?
‘The ability of a microorganism to withstand the effect of a normally active concentration of an antimicrobial agent.’
Intrinsic (natural) resistance
do not possess the target or are impenetrable – structural or biochemical characteristics e.g. most gram-negative bacteria are resistant to Penicillin G
Acquired resistance:
Inactivation (most important in context of AMR)
- Alter the target site
- Prevent entry into cell
- Efflux – pump it out of the cell
- Altered metabolic processes
antibiotic growth promoters (GP) in feed
Swann Report recommended that important antibiotics for humans should not be used as growth promoters in animal feed, but should continue as prophylactic and therapeutic agents under veterinary control – provoked resistance from farmers and pharmaceutical companies
Sweden became the first country to ban their use through the 1986 Feedingstuffs Act after public concern about AMR – farmers supported the change in legislation
In 1980, Sweden had sales of 8.4 tonnes of active antibiotic substances sold as feed additives; in 1988 this dropped to zero
Denmark was also a pioneer country acting on this issue; Danish farmers voluntarily stopped using avoparcin for GP in 1995 (avoparcin had been 20% of the total volume of antibiotics used in livestock, mostly in pigs)
The EU banned the use of all antibiotics as feed additives from 2006
CIAs
– Critically Important Antimicrobials for human health – decisions based on two criteria:
Criterion 1) Sole therapy or one of few alternatives to treat serious human disease
Criterion 2) Antibacterial used to treat diseases caused by organisms that may be transmitted via non-human sources or diseases causes by organisms that may acquire resistance genes from non-human sources
Critically important antimicrobials are those which meet criteria 1 AND 2.
Highly important antimicrobials are those which meet criteria 1 OR 2.
Important antimicrobials are those which meet neither criteria 1 nor 2
O’Neill Review 2016
July 2014 – Prime Minister David Cameron commissioned a review on AMR
Economist Jim O’Neill (Lord O’Neill) was asked to lead the review – reported in Dec 2015
Jointly supported by the UK Government and Wellcome Trust
A global public awareness campaign
Improve sanitation and prevent the spread of infection
Reduce unnecessary use of antimicrobials in agriculture and the environment
Improve global surveillance of drug resistance and antimicrobial consumption in humans and animals
Promote new, rapid diagnostics to reduce unnecessary use of antimicrobials
Promote development and use of vaccines and alternatives
Improve the number, pay and recognition of people working in infectious disease
A global innovation fund for early stage and non-commercial R&D
Better incentives to promote investments for new drugs and improving existing ones
Lot of pressure was placed on the livestock sectors to demonstrate clear plans to reduce antibiotic use
On a tonnage basis, livestock antibiotic consumption looked high
2015 – approx. 56% of total antibiotic use in the UK was in humans and 44% in animals (with 7% of that animal use in companion animals)
Not all livestock sectors were in the same position to put in place hard targets due to the lack of nationalised recording systems
Livestock industry group RUMA set up their ‘Targets Taskforce’ in 2016 to set measurable targets for the UK livestock sector
2014 RUMA action plan
Responsible Use of Medicines in Agriculture Alliance
- Improve infection prevention and control practices
- Optimise prescribing practice
- Improve professional education, training and public engagement
- Develop new drugs, treatments and diagnostics
- Better access to, and use of, surveillance data
- Better identification and prioritisation of AMR research needs
- Strengthen international collaboration
The Veterinary Medicines Regulations 2013
Definition of “veterinary medicinal product”, interpretation and scope
2.—(1) In these Regulations “veterinary medicinal product” means—
(a) any substance or combination of substances presented as having properties for treating or preventing disease in animals; or
(b) any substance or combination of substances that may be used in, or administered to, animals with a view either to restoring, correcting or modifying physiological functions by exerting a pharmacological, immunological or metabolic action, or to making a medical diagnosis.
Food-producing animals: records of acquisition and administration
19.—(1) When a veterinary medicinal product is bought or otherwise acquired for a food-producing animal the keeper must, at the time, record—
(a)the name of the product and the batch number;
(b)the date of acquisition;
(c)the quantity acquired; and
(d)the name and address of the supplier.
(2) At the time of administration (unless the administration is by a veterinary surgeon in which case the record must be in accordance with regulation 18) the keeper must record—
(a)the name of the product;
(b)the date of administration;
(c)the quantity administered;
(d)the withdrawal period; and
(e)the identification of the animals treated.
(3) A keeper who disposes of any or all of the veterinary medicinal product other than by treating an animal must record—
(a)the date of disposal;
(b)the quantity of product involved; and
(c)how and where it was disposed of.
issues with electrical stunning in poultry
use of a water bath is most common method
reduces carcass quiality- patechial haemorage, flapping may cause fractures and haemorage
shackling can cause handling issues due to hig speed and may be painful
dim lights and uk lights and brest plates attempt to sooth poultry
if wing touches water before head it can cause pain
differemt sized birds may cause inadiquate stunning
issues with controlled atmosphere stunning in poultry
co2-
not instantanious
expensive
irritant to resp system
recent shortage
innert gases-
anasthetic properties
The chicken production pyramid
Elite breeding stock
Great grandparents (GGPs)
Grandparents (GPs)
Parents
BROILERS – The meat chicken
what bacteria is a massive cause of chick death in the first week of life
e.coli
scald tank
Scald water temp – between 50C and 63C
higher temp for turkeys
temp and time important- overscalding cooks meat
loosenes feather for defethering
Lower end for chickens and higher end for turkeys
Scalding actually decreases bacterial contamination on the bird
Campylobacter contamination after scalding and defeathering
campylobacter no.1 cause of food poisoning
Mean numbers reduced on neck skin after scalding, but immediately rose again after plucking
75% of consumer chickens contaminated
First inspection point in poultry
after defethering
birds removed from the line
De-feathering gone wrong?
Unbled bird?
problems with uneven bird size in poultry
Waterbath stunning – small birds may not be stunned
Evisceration – machinery set up for the majority larger birds in the batch – gut spill or not eviscerated at all
Circulations of antimicrobial resistance genes
anitimicrobial use->
Humans: Environment, Human sewage
Food animals
Animal-derived food
Animal waste
Companion animals
Michigan PBB incident - 1973
Polybrominated Biphenyl – flame retardant chemical
May 1973 – a chemical factory accidentally mixed up PBB (‘FireMaster’) and magnesium oxide (MgO), intended as a feed additive for livestock
The toxic PBB was sold to a livestock feed manufacturer instead of MgO
By end of 1975 – 29,000 cattle, 6000 pigs, 1.5M chickens had been euthanised in Michigan to try to control the subsequent toxicity and health issues (Reich, 1983)
Toxicity first detected in a 400-cow dairy herd in Sept 1973 (4 months after the mix-up)
Farmer was noting significant and unusual health and productivity problems in the herd: decreased appetite and milk yield, increased urination, reproductive issues, abscess formation, hair loss, abnormal hoof growth and gait
Feed suspected as the root cause
Protracted struggle between farmers, vets, feed company, state authorities to figure out what was going on, and the scale of the problem
End result – millions of consumers affected through contaminated food consumption over a year – meat and other livestock-derived food products
Cohort study initiated in 1976 to track health impacts through PBB exposure
Direct exposure on affected farms and through ingestion of contaminated food products
Wolff et al. (1982) reported cross-sectional study on human adipose tissue samples in Michigan – 97% with detectable PBB
Hoque et al. (1998) found a dose-response relationship between serum PBB levels and digestive system cancers and lymphoma in affected humans
PCB chicken feed contamination incident – USA 1979
July 1979 – PCB detected in routine residue testing of fat sample from a chicken slaughtered in Utah (Drotman et al., 1983)
Chicken traced back to a layer farm in Idaho
The farm had been feeding chicken rations containing processed pig animal by-products
Subsequently found that approx. 760 litres of PCB-containing transformer oil had leaked into an ABP collections tank in a pig slaughter plant in Montana
The pig ABP had then been rendered and processed into meat and bone meal (MBM) for animal feed
Layer farm in Idaho bought this PCB-contaminated chicken feed in June 1979
10 weeks later the source of contamination was discovered – complex investigation
PCB had been widely distributed across the animal feed chain from this single source contamination at the pig slaughter plant
Approx. 1400 companies in the USA reckoned to have sourced this contaminated MBM
Cost of over $3.5M in recall of products
PCB/dioxin feed contamination incident – Belgium 1999
Transformer oil containing 40-50 kgs PCBs and 1g dioxin mixed with used mineral oil and fat from waste recycling
Then combined with 60-80 tonnes of fat collected from slaughterhouses
Sold to 10 different animal feed manufacturers for incorporation in to animal feed
This produced about 500 tonnes of animal feed - distributed to many Belgian, Dutch, French and German farms
Belgium worst affected – 445 poultry farms, 393 cattle farms, 746 pig farms (Larebeke et al., 2001)
Impacts first noticed on poultry farms and hatcheries – decreased egg production and hatchability, epidemic of chicken oedema disease (Covaci et al., 2002)
6 weeks later – toxicology analysis of feed samples, chickens, eggs
2 million chickens were euthanised – poultry were most affected
Political impact due to inadequate communication management around this incident by the government – poorly handled (Casey et al., 2010)
Led to creation of a new Belgian food safety authority
PCB/dioxin contamination of pork – Ireland 2008
PCB/dioxin detected through routine testing of pig fat samples in Nov 2008
National Residue Monitoring programme
Traced back to farm of origin – contaminated pig feed
Waste bread/biscuits being heated by hot gases to reduce moisture content – waste oil being burned and releasing PCB/dioxin which contaminated the bread/biscuits
Result – multiple pig and cattle farms were feeding this bread/biscuit ration
170,000 pigs and 5,700 cattle euthanised on affected farms
Global recall of Irish pork announced 6 Dec. 2008 – 30,000 tonnes recalled and destroyed
120 M euro overall cost
Reputational damage, but handled quickly and transparently by Irish government with EFSA support
PCB/dioxin contamination of pork – Ireland 2008
PCB/dioxin detected through routine testing of pig fat samples in Nov 2008
National Residue Monitoring programme
Traced back to farm of origin – contaminated pig feed
Waste bread/biscuits being heated by hot gases to reduce moisture content – waste oil being burned and releasing PCB/dioxin which contaminated the bread/biscuits
Result – multiple pig and cattle farms were feeding this bread/biscuit ration
170,000 pigs and 5,700 cattle euthanised on affected farms
Global recall of Irish pork announced 6 Dec. 2008 – 30,000 tonnes recalled and destroyed
120 M euro overall cost
Reputational damage, but handled quickly and transparently by Irish government with EFSA support
Contamination of feed on farm - Toxoplasma
Cats are the definitive host for the zoonotic parasite Toxoplasma gondii and shed oocysts in their faeces
This study observed cat latrines across 3 dairy farms using cameras
Repeated use of latrines by cats, particularly those closest to their feeding sites
Potential for heavy contamination of soil, straw and animal feed – T. gondii hotspots
key legislation for animal welfare
animla welfare act 2006
animal health and welfare act scotlant 2006
secondary legislation-
welfare of farmed animals 2007
What does the AWA / AHW(S)A apply to?
Includes temporary care e.g. wild animals being rehabilitated
When you do something to the animal
An owner is ALWAYS responsible
Includes temporary responsibility, including YOU
Anyone responsible for a person under the age of 16 is responsible for their care of any animal
Meeting the animals “needs” (as are reasonable in all the circumstances) and according to good practice
suitable environment
suitable diet
to exhibit normal behaviour patterns
to be housed with, or apart from, other animals
to be protected from pain, suffering, injury and disease
Key animal welfare legislation applicable to shows
Animal Welfare Act / AHW(S)A (2006)
The Animal Welfare (Licensing of Activities Involving Animals) (England) Regulations 2018
Performing Animals Act (1925)
The Welfare of Animals (Transport) (E, W, S) Order 2006
Council Regulation (EC) No 1/2005
Transport to and from the show legislation
The Welfare of Animals (Transport) (England) Order 2006
“offence to transport any animal in a way which causes, or is likely to cause, injury or unnecessary suffering to that animal.”
“offence to transport any animal except in such receptacles or means of transport, under conditions (in particular with regard to space, ventilation, temperature and security) and with such supply of liquid and oxygen, as are appropriate for the species concerned.”
collection centres and control posts
EC 1/2005- “assembly centres’ means places such as holdings, collection centres and markets, at which domestic Equidae or domestic animals of bovine, ovine, caprine or porcine species originating from different holdings are grouped together to form consignments”
Council Regulation (EC) No 1255/97(transferred) applies to control posts
Apply principles of duty of care basic needs and relevant WOFAR (welfare of farmed animals regulations) schedules
Welfare in Transport legislation - enforcement
Markets & roads
Principally enforced by local authorities
Police and APHA may support
Unloading at slaughterhouse – FSA/LA
Inside the slaughterhouse lairage – FSA +/- LA
APHA however leads on
Supervised loadings
Ports, airports, control posts
Expert reports for slaughterhouses & undercover footage
Welfare in Transport Team WIT@apha.gov.uk
Journey logs, transporter revocations, letters
General principles of transport rules
5 things have to be fit for purpose
The Means of Transport – the trailer / vehicle
The competence of the Transporter
The competence of Drover / Farmer doing the loading / unloading
The competence of the owner/employee making decisions on whether to transport an animal- Prior knowledge of conditions the transporter may be unaware of
The animal being transported on the intended journey
If any of these things are not fit for purpose this can lead to unnecessary injury and suffering during the transport process including loading and unloading
Welfare on farm
Remember you may not be dealing with just welfare issues
ABP, including dodgy collection bins and dodgy incinerators
Vet Medicine Regulations
Animal ID transgressions
Social / mental health issues that may need referring / reporting
who enforces animal welfare
On Farm & Transport-
Animal & Plant Health Agency (APHA)
Local authorities take most enforcement for farmed animals, usually working with APHA, sometimes SSPCA
Private and retailer assurance schemes (e.g. Red Tractor) carry out their own inspections
At Slaughter-
Food Standards Agency (FSA) and Food Standards Scotland (FSS)
Companion Animals-
RSPCA, World Horse Welfare, SSPCA
Local authorities for any licensed animal activities
considerations when measuring biological function for welfare
Resource measure
is feed present?
Tells you it is available
BUT
Is it available at a frequency appropriate to physiological needs?
Is it appropriate to their age and species?
Outcome measure - Are they eating it?
Outcome – Body Condition Score
This is a good outcome measure for whether adult cattle are getting sufficient and appropriate food
BUT
must consider the breed type in developing BCS measure and in considering risks to welfare
considerations when measuring biological function for welfare
Resource measure
is feed present?
Tells you it is available
BUT
Is it available at a frequency appropriate to physiological needs?
Is it appropriate to their age and species?
Outcome measure - Are they eating it?
Outcome – Body Condition Score
This is a good outcome measure for whether adult cattle are getting sufficient and appropriate food
BUT
must consider the breed type in developing BCS measure and in considering risks to welfare
Birch et al (2021) describe 8 criteria for determining sentience
possession of nociceptors
possession of integrative brain regions
connections between nociceptors and integrative brain regions
responses affected by potential local anaesthetics or analgesics
motivational trade-offs that show a balancing of threat against opportunity for reward
flexible self-protective behaviours in response to injury and threat
associative learning that goes beyond habituation and sensitisation
behaviour that shows the animal values local anaesthetics or analgesics when injured.
If 2 of the criteria are met then there is some evidence of sentience
3 of the 8 criteria are met then there is substantial evidence of sentience
If 5 or more of the criteria are met then there is strong evidence of sentience
If 7 or more of the 8 criteria are met then there is very strong evidence of sentience
organisations involved in antimicrobial stewardship
veterinary medicines directorate (VMD)
british small animal veterinary assosiation (BSAVA)
Europen medicines agency (EMA)
worlds organisation for animal health (woah)
food and agreculture organisation (foa)
describe Pig farming and antibiotics in the UK
Sulphonamides used from late 1930s for respiratory diseases
Penicillin available to vets from late 1940s
In the 1950s antibiotics started to be allowed as growth promoters after American scientists discovered the effects of low-dose aureomycin on pig growth
From 1953 the Government allowed aureomycin to be added to pig and poultry feeds
By 1958 nearly half of all British pigs had access to antibiotics as growth promoters
No license was required for in-feed use, but vets could only administer them as treatment
Antibiotic resistance in Salmonella typhimurium
‘A rise in Salmonella typhimurium infection was observed in calves in Britain during 1964-6, following the adoption of the intensive farming method.’
‘At least one dealer was distributing furazolidone with his calves, with instructions to his clients to administer it to the animals for a few weeks … we first found furazolidone resistance in cultures of type 29 isolated in November 1964, and within a short time it was prevalent in the type. Calves distributed by this dealer played a major role in carrying type 29 infection to many parts of the country.’
BVA 7-Point Plan on Responsible Use
2017
- Work with clients to avoid need for antimicrobials
- Avoid inappropriate use
- Choose the right drug for the right bug
- Monitor antimicrobial sensitivity
- Minimise use
- Record and justify deviations from protocols
- Report suspected treatment failure to the VMD (Vet. Medicines Directorate)
New antibiotic development
After initial flurries of success in the decades after the launch of penicillin, the production line of new products started slowing
Antibiotic development became less lucrative – high R&D costs
New product patents would expire, allowing competitors to replicate and sell at less cost
Global pharmaceutical companies started focusing on medicines with longer treatment courses = more attractive returns on investment
Pharmacovigilance became more regulated - stricter requirements on the industry, increasing costs
Staphylococcus aureus
Bovine mastitis involvement - important
Humans – skin infections, osteomyelitis,
septicaemia – can be fatal. Also foodborne illness due to toxins.
One of the first bacteria in which development of resistance was noticed
MRSA – Methicillin-resistant Staph. aureus – nasal and groin carriage
Often >90% S. aureus isolates penicillin-resistant
survalance division
part of the vet. medicines directorate (vmd)
handles-
amr policy
stewardship and usage
survalence and evidence
r and d program
residues
State Veterinary control in the UK
Although DEFRA is the lead state veterinary organisation at a UK level, and APHA is essentially its operational arm, animal health legislation is devolved to the Parliaments/Assembly in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland
The Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs (DAERA) runs the Veterinary Service in N. Ireland
Since Brexit, the NI Protocol sets out the legal framework covering NI and its relationship to the European Union (EU) – NI continues to align with EU Regulations on goods and customs
This regulatory alignment means that NI must apply Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) measures as if it was still within the EU i.e. animal/animal product and plant checks at ports for import trade from GB, but free trade with Rep. of Ireland (intra-EU trade)
Animal & Plant Health Agency
Launched in 2014 – merger of Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency (AHVLA) with parts of the Food and Environment Research Agency (FERA)
Covers animal, plant and bee health
Headquarters in Weybridge, Surrey. Approx. 2,200 staff in total.
Andrew Soldan MRCVS is the APHA Veterinary Director
Non-legislative approaches to protecting and promoting animal welfare
Non-legislative approaches – OIE (World Organisation for Animal Health), Farm Quality Assurance schemes, welfare-friendly labelling, retailer schemes, codes of best practice, public campaigns/pressure groups
legislative approaches to protecting and promoting animal welfare
Creation, implementation and enforcement of UK legislation – role for the state veterinarian
BSE (Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy)
novel clinical synfrome dectected in q987
37,280 cases in UK in peak year of 1992
Behavioural abnormalities and over-reactivity to various external stimuli, often in combination with abnormalities of gait, were highly suggestive of BSE.’
isteriosis most common differential
Fipronil contamination of eggs
Netherlands 2017
UK Food Standards Agency (FSA) estimated 700,000 eggs imported into the UK were contaminated
Highly pathogenic avian influenza in GB
Outbreaks occurring every day in Great Britain. As of the start of this week:
118 confirmed cases of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 in England since 1 October 2022
252 cases of (HPAI) H5N1 in England since the H5N1 outbreak started in October 2021
The 3km and 10km zones (an example):
Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 was confirmed in poultry and other captive birds on 21 November 2022 at a premises near Barnard Castle, County Durham, Durham (AIV 2022/213). A 3km protection zone and 10km surveillance zone are in place around the premises. All birds on the premises will be humanely culled.
Highly pathogenic avian influenza – trade effects
Outbreaks occurring every day in Great Britain
Culls of birds on infected holdings
Culls of birds deemed at risk from infected flocks
Loss of trade in hatching eggs, table eggs, poultry meat, day old chicks, (captive birds)
National (UK-wide), regional (Regions of UK, counties), zonal restrictions (3 and 10km)
Massive financial impacts - lost trade, lost markets, lost genetics, lost production
poultry redifined to protect trade-
Means all birds reared or kept in captivity for the production of any commercial animal products or for breeding for this purpose, fighting cocks used for any purpose, and all birds used for restocking supplies of game or for breeding for this purpose, until they are released from captivity.
Birds that are kept in a single household, the products of which are used within the same household exclusively, are not considered poultry, provided that they have no direct or indirect contact with poultry or poultry facilities.
Birds that are kept in captivity for other reasons, including those that are kept for shows, racing, exhibitions, zoological collections and competitions, and for breeding or selling for these purposes, as well as pet birds, are not considered poultry, provided that they have no direct or indirect contact with poultry or poultry facilities.
African Swine Fever – trade effects e.g. China
ASF in China was expected to result in a 27% reduction in Chinese pork production
This opened trading opportunities for other nations to supply into that production deficit
BSE – trade effects
Estimated impact on Canadian economy = $1 billion due to loss of export markets
threat of rabies in uk
threat from imported dogs
‘The UK’s lack of experience with rabies is a blessing and a curse. As Chris Laurence, former chair of the Canine and Feline Sector Group, points out: ‘We’ve basically never had rabies in this country, so you wonder how quickly it would be picked up. How many vets in the UK have seen a case of rabies and would recognise it?’
trade of puppies
RSPCA campaign on banning puppy imports
‘In October 2020 alone, 5,287 Intra Trade Animal Health Certificates (ITAHC) were issued - the highest ever for commercial dog and puppy imports.’
In a RSPCA-commissioned survey in Nov 2020, 38% of respondents said they would be willing to buy a smuggled puppy
IPAFFS
IPAFFS ‘Import of Products, Animals, Food and Feed System’ replaces the EU’s TRACES system in GB.
Regulation (EU) No 576/2013
The legal basis of the EU Pet Travel Scheme (dogs, cats , ferrets):
Article 6
Conditions applicable to the non-commercial movement of pet animals of the species listed in Part A of Annex I
Pet animals of the species listed in Part A of Annex I shall not be moved into a Member State from another Member State unless they fulfil the following conditions:
they are marked in accordance with Article 17(1);
they have received an anti-rabies vaccination that complies with the validity requirements set out in Annex III;
they comply with any preventive health measures for diseases or infections other than rabies adopted pursuant to Article 19(1);
they are accompanied by an identification document duly completed and issued in accordance with Article 22.
The RCVS 10 Principles of Certification – No. 1
- A veterinarian should certify only those matters which:
a) are within his or her own knowledge;
b) can be ascertained by him or her personally;
c) are the subject of supporting evidence from an authorised veterinarian who has personal knowledge of the matters in question; or
d) are the subject of checks carried out by an Officially Authorised Person (OAP) (see Annex 21.A).
The RCVS 10 Principles of Certification: Nos. 2
- Veterinarians should not issue a certificate that might raise questions of a possible conflict of interest.
The RCVS 10 Principles of Certification: Nos. 3
- A veterinarian should only sign certificates that are written in a language they understand.
The RCVS 10 Principles of Certification: Nos. 4
. A veterinarian should not certify that there has been compliance with the law of another country or jurisdiction unless the provisions of that law are set out clearly on the certificate or have been provided to them by the Competent Authority in writing.
The RCVS 10 Principles of Certification: Nos. 5
A veterinarian should only sign original certificates. Where there is a legal or official requirement for a certified copy or duplicate (marked as such) these can be provided.
The RCVS 10 Principles of Certification: No. 6
- When signing a certificate, a veterinarian should ensure that:
a) the certificate contains no deletions or alterations, other than those which are indicated on the certificate to be permissible, and subject to such changes being initialled and stamped by the certifying veterinarian;
b) no section of the certificate is left incomplete;
c) the certificate includes not only their signature but also, in clear lettering, their name, qualifications and address and (where appropriate) their official or practice stamps;
d) the certificate includes the date on which the certificate was signed and issued and (where appropriate) the time for which the certificate will remain valid.
The RCVS 10 Principles of Certification: Nos. 7
- Certificates should be written in simple terms which are easy to understand.
The RCVS 10 Principles of Certification: Nos. 8
- Certificates should be:
a) clear and concise;
b) integrated, whole and indivisible;
c) given a unique identifier; and
d) copied and retained with all relevant records.
The RCVS 10 Principles of Certification: Nos. 9
- Certificates should not use words or phrases which are capable of more than one interpretation.
The RCVS 10 Principles of Certification: Nos. 10
- Certificates should clearly identify the subject being certified.
risk analysis for imports
An import risk analysis starts with a consideration of the commodity being imported
Anticipated volume of trade annually? Difficult to estimate if new trade
Next step – Hazard identification – the potential pathogens, THEN:
Release assessment
Exposure assessment
Consequence assessment
Risk estimation
risk managment for imports
Risk management comes after risk assesmet – the process of deciding upon, and implementing, measures to achieve the appropriate level of national protection, while still facilitating trade
Fulfil obligations under international trade agreements, while minimising likelihood of disease incursions and their consequences
Risk evaluation
Option evaluation
Implementation
Monitoring and review
Traceability – animal health meets food safety
Traceability – the ability to document movements, processes, controls to cover the animal and animal product’s life history
The need for traceability therefore allows us to make demands on all elements of the food chain:
Animal feed manufacturers Primary producers Transporters (trade certification, movement docs) Food business operators – abattoirs, processors Retailers – the final link to the consumer
The risks need to be managed effectively throughout the food supply chain
Red Meat Industry Structure
farm- Primary production – sheep, cattle, pig
Marketing from the farm – direct to slaughter or through livestock market
Abattoir
Cutting plant-
Primary processing – from live animal to carcass
Secondary processing – from carcass to meat portions – cutting plants
distribution- Local/national trade – butchers, retailers, catering, manufacturing
Export trade
End point – consumption – pork, beef, lamb/mutton
Ante Mortem Inspection: EU Regulation 2019/627
Article 11.3 states that:
‘Ante-mortem inspections shall determine whether, as regards the particular animal inspected, there is any sign:
(a) that the health and welfare of the animal has been compromised;
(b) of any condition, abnormalities or disease that make the fresh meat unfit for human consumption or that might adversely affect animal health, paying particular attention to the detection of zoonotic diseases and animal diseases for which animal health rules are laid down in Regulation (EU) 2016/429- The ‘Animal Health Law’ – essentially notifiable diseases
(c) of the use of prohibited or unauthorised substances, misuse of veterinary medicinal products or the presence of chemical residues or contaminants.’
Codex Chapter 6.1:
PRINCIPLES OF MEAT HYGIENE APPLYING TO ANIMALS PRESENTED FOR SLAUGHTER
i. Animals presented for slaughter should be sufficiently clean so that they do not compromise hygienic slaughter and dressing.
ii. The conditions of holding of animals presented for slaughter should minimise cross-contamination with foodborne pathogens and facilitate efficient slaughter and dressing.
iii. Slaughter animals should be subjected to ante-mortem inspection, with the competent authority determining the procedures and tests to be used, how inspection is to be implemented, and the necessary training, knowledge, skills and ability of personnel involved.
iv. Ante-mortem inspection should be science- and risk-based as appropriate to the circumstances and should take into account all relevant information from the level of primary production.
v. Relevant information from primary production where available and results of ante-mortem inspection should be utilised in process control.
vi. Relevant information from ante-mortem inspection should be analysed and returned to the primary producer as appropriate.’
Extract from Codex Alimentarius – Code of Hygienic Practice for Meat
Ante Mortem: EU Reg 2019/627
Clean livestock
Article 11.4 states that:
‘Ante-mortem inspection shall include verification of food business operators’ compliance with their obligation to ensure that animals have a clean hide, skin or fleece, so as to avoid any unacceptable risk of contamination of the fresh meat during slaughter.’
The need for ‘clean’ animals to be presented for slaughter is laid down here in European law
The potential impact of transport conditions
Less-than-ideal transport conditions can result in clean animals becoming contaminated en route to the abattoir
Make sure the transport vehicle is clean, dry and disinfected between loads
Avoid loading up cattle in wet conditions – try to have them dry and clean before the journey
Coming off grass compared to housing can affect faecal consistency
Transport vehicles must have protection from the weather – roof and ventilation to avoid cattle sweating
Multi-deck vehicles – should be designed so that faeces and urine do not flow down onto animals on the lower decks
woadt!
Cattle slaughter line
Purchase and transport
Unloading and lairage
Ante-mortem inspection
Stunning
Shackling
Opening hide of neck
Sticking and bleeding
Hoof removal
Head removal
Opening of hide on body and hide removal
Brisket sawing
Eviscerating
Carcass splitting
Removal of spinal cord- specified risk material
Trimming
Carcass weighing, grading and health marking
Washing
Chilling
Sheep slaughter line
Purchase and transport
Unloading and lairage
Ante-mortem inspection
Stunning
Shackling
Opening fleece of neck
Sticking and bleeding
opening of fleece om body and removal
Head removal
feet removal
Brisket sawing
Eviscerating
Carcass splitting
Removal of spinal cord- specified risk material
Trimming
Carcass weighing, grading and health marking
Washing
Chilling
Pig slaughter line
Purchase and transport
Unloading and lairage
Ante-mortem inspection
Stunning
Shackling
Opening fleece of neck
Sticking and bleeding
scalding
deharing
singing
poloshng
washing
Eviscerating
Carcass splitting
washing
brisket sawing
carcass weighing , grading and health marking
chilling
describe the chemical composition of a carcas after slughter
Muscle tissue at death contains about 1% glycogen
pH = around 7.2
Meat would be slightly tough and tasteless
Anaerobic glycolysis starts – muscle tissue changes to become meat
Carcass temperature rises by 1.5 C
Muscles start to stiffen
must be aged to be tender
calculationg risk and significance for haccp
Codex Alimentarius recommends the use of risk assessment
Many different methods
High medium low
Likelihood x severity = risk (3x3 & 5x5 popular)
RAG
Simply stated
Recommend you show your justification
Critical limit
a criterion that can be monitored that separates acceptability from unacceptability
HACCP
Monitoring
in HACCP
conducting a planned sequence of observations or measurements of control parameters to assess whether a critical control point (CCP) is under control
should specify:
– who is responsible for undertaking the check
– when it should be carried out
– what equipment, if any, is required
– how it should be carried out
Corrective action- HACCP
any actions to be taken when the results of monitoring at a critical control point (CCP) indicate a loss of control
* two main aims:
– to make the product safe
– to prevent a recurrence of the problem
Verification HACCP
verification involves confirming that the HACCP system is working correctly by applying additional methods, procedures, tests or other evaluations that are in addition to the monitoring procedures already in place
Includes management activities such as auditing and review of historical issues, complaints etc.
Internal audit
a review of the HACCP system and plan
* a review of documentation and records
* a review of any deviations:
– actions taken if products rejected or recalled
– records of food-borne illness
– customer complaints
* confirmation that CCPs are under control
Why HACCP systems fail
lack of management commitment
* insufficient resources are provided
* lack of awareness and/or training
* hygiene standards are poor
* system developed is too complicated
* system has not been developed in-house
* agreed procedures are not being carried out
* not all hazards have been identified
list some notifiable diseases
African horse sickness
African swine fever
Anthrax
Aujeszky’s disease
Avian influenza (bird flu)
Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans
Bluetongue
BSE
Bovine TB
Brucellosis
Chronic wasting disease
Classical swine fever
Contagious agalactia
Contagious bovine pleuro-pneumonia
Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia
Contagious epididymitis
Contagious equine metritis
Dourine
Echinococcus multilocularis
Enzootic bovine leukosis
Epizootic haemorrhagic disease
Epizootic lymphangitis
Equine infectious anaemia (swamp fever)
Equine viral arteritis
Equine viral encephalomyelitis
Foot and mouth disease
Glanders and farcy
Goat plague
Lumpy skin disease
Newcastle disease
Paramyxovirus infection
Porcine epidemic diarrhoea
Rabies
Rabies in bats
Rift Valley fever
Rinderpest
Scrapie
Sheep and goat pox
Sheep scab
Surra
Swine vesicular disease
Teschen disease
Vesicular stomatitis
Warble fly
West Nile fever:
Why are some disease notifiable:
International trade
Public health
Animal welfare
HOW DO apha TRY TO REDUCE THE RISK OF NOTIFIABLE DISSEASE
Stop imports from infected areas or countries
Pre-export tests and isolation
Post import checks
Trading partners
Horizon scanning
Active and passive surveillance programmes
what happens when notifiable disease is reported
Serve restrictions
+/-temporary control zones
APHA investigate
+/- take samples
CVO confirmation
Trace + spread
Action to control disease spread:
Cleanse and disinfect
Zones
Culling/compensation/sparing
