mcq 2 pcp Flashcards
vsmall animal oestrus cycle
Pro-oestrous (10 days)
Oestrous (10 days)
Luteal phase (2 month)
Pregnant or non-pregnant
Anoestrous (4.5 months)
P4 from CL only
LH and prolactin luteotrophic
Average gestation in the bitch
63-64 days (range 56-72 days)
calculated either from
preovulatory surge of luteinizing hormone (LH) (65 ± 1 days)
day of ovulation (63 ± 1 days)
time of fertilization (60 ± 1 days)
principles of pregnancy diagnosis
Detection of protein / endocrinological changes associated with pregnancy
- Detection of the fetus or fetal membranes either directly or indirectly:
Abdominal palpation
Ultrasound examination
Radiographic examination - Detection of physical changes in the dam which are associated with her accommodating a fetus (increased size of the uterus)
- Detection of maternal changes that are secondary to endocrinological changes
Plasma Progesterone Concentration
No rapid return to oestrus
Not sufficiently different between pregnant and non-pregnant bitches
Plasma Relaxin Concentration in small animals
Values elevated in pregnancy from day 25 onwards and are diagnostic whilst a viable placenta is present
describe what can be felt on abdominal palpation in the bitch
From 21 days
Before this, the pregnant and non-pregnant uterus is not reliably palpated
Day 21 – 32
Aprox 1.5-3.5cm, round, firm and well separated
“Chain of walnuts”
After day 32
Gestational sacs become more confluent and lose their distinction - “sausages”
After day 50 the puppies may be balloted directly
radiography for small animal pregnancy diagnosis
Limited use in early pregnancy
Fetal calcification after day 41-44 (av – 42d)
So radiographic diagnosis from day 45
Can determine number, position and relative size of fetuses from day -50
Valuable in dystocia cases
Fetal skeleton – >day 42
Skull day 45-59
Pelvic bones day 53-57
Teeth day 58-63
ultrasonography for small animal pregnancy diagnosis
Fetal structures from day 17
Fetal heartbeats detected from approx. 24-28 days of pregnancy
Cannot assess number of fetuses
Has limitations, particularly in early gestation
Cannot be accurately used to count foetuses
Fetal heart movements 28-30 days after ovulation IF known
False negatives
False positives
what can be used to measure gestational age in small animals
Appearance of certain organs
E.g. kidneys last 20 days of gestation (see table for reference)
Measurement of foetal dimensions – less useful in later gestation
Gestational sac (or chorionic cavity) diameter in early pregnancy
Crown-rump length
Head diameter
Trunk diameter
Nb. These measurements are breed-specific
Pseudopregnancy
All entire non-pregnant bitches go through pseudopregnancy
Long luteal phase (~66d)
Clinical signs ->Prolactin
Covert/physiological
Overt/Clinical
Queen
Sterile matings
Behaviours less commonly seen
Hyperaemia of nipples as in pregnancy
Pyometra
Occurs during the luteal phase
Due to bacterial colonisation at oestrus
Can be open or closed
Most common in middle aged and elderly bitches
Pyometra may also be induced by:
therapeutic administration of oestrogens for treatment of unwanted pregnancy
therapeutic administration of progestogens for prevention of oestrus
Pregnancy Diagnosis (Queen)
Polyoestrous
Return to oestrous confirms non-pregnancy
BUT lack of return is not specific for pregnancy
Behavioural changes not useful
Physical changes.. Can be subtle
Reddening of mammary glands d21
Enlargement of mammary glands d50
Manual palpation – d21-25 optimal
Relaxin – d25
Ultrasonography – 3 weeks post mating
Radiography – mineralisation of fetal skeleton at d40.
treatment of Accidental Pregnancies
Surgical Approach
- Pharmacological Approach
Drugs that act on the uterus:
Oestrogens e.g. oestradiol benzoate
Alters transit time of zygote
Within first 5 days of mating
Anti-progestogens
Synthetic steroids that compete with progesterone
Aglepristone (Alizin)
Day 1 - 45
Drugs that act on the ovaries:
Prostaglandins – luteolytic
Bitch and Queen corpora lutea are ‘autonomous’ for first 15 days of luteal phase
PG’s of little use before day 20
Repeated treatments are necessary
Drugs that act on the pituitary gland:
Dopamine agonists (prolactin inhibitors) e.g. bromocriptine and cabergoline
No activity before 30d, moderate activity 30-40d
Suspected/Early pregnancy – Aglepristone
Mid-pregnancy 22-40 days – Aglepristone
Confirm by USS before and after (10d), repeat if necessary
Signs of parturition
Late pregnancy >40d after mating
PGF2a
Dopamine agonists
Combination
pregnancy diagnosis in the bitch
NOT a lack of return to oestrus
NOT elevated plasma progesterone
Trans-abdominal ultrasound: from day 25
Plasma relaxin: from day 25
Plasma acute phase proteins: from day 35
Abdominal palpation for discrete swellings: from day 28
Radiographic examination: from day 45
Predicting parturition in the bitch
A number of clinical indicators of impending parturition may be used, including:
Measurement of progesterone and LH during oestrous
Behavioural changes close to parturition-
Restless
Seek seclusion/excessively attentive
Inappetant
Nesting behaviour
Shivering
Clinical signs close to parturition- Relaxation of pelvic, perineal and abdominal musculature
Increased HR
Decline in body temperature
Measurement of progesterone in late pregnancy
Diagnostic imaging
Progesterone and whelping
Around ovulation assists in prediction of whelping dates:
the date on which progesterone first exceeds 1.8 ng/mL (~2 ng/mL) predicted the day of parturition within:
±1 day – 67% precision
±2 days – 90%
±3 days - 100%
Around due date:
<2.8ng/ml = 99% chance of whelping within 48 hours
<1.0ng/ml = 100%
>5ng/ml = <2% chance of spontaneous parturition within 12 hrs
stages of Normal Parturition
- Stage of preparation
Production of relaxin (placenta)
Causes relaxation of the pubic symphysis, vulval and perineal tissues - First stage parturition
Onset of contractions
Restlessness, nesting, temperature drop
3.Second stage parturition
Expulsion of the foetus
4.Third stage parturition
Expulsion of the placenta and foetal membranes
- Puerperium
Maternal dystocia
Inadequate expulsive forces
Inadequacy of birth canal
Foetal dystocia
Presentation or disproportion (relative to the dam) of the fetus
dystocia- Defects of expulsive forces:
Intrinsic defects of uterine contractility
Nervous voluntary inhibition of labour
Failure of contraction due to mineral/hormonal imbalances (primary inertia)
Exhaustion of uterine muscle or depletion of pituitary oxytocin stores (secondary inertia)
dystocia- Defects in adequacy of birth canal:
Functional disturbances of genitalia e.g. incomplete cervical dilation
Obstructions e.g. neoplasia
Pelvic malconformations e.g. brachycephalics or past #’s
Management of primary inertia
Primary uterine inertia is the failure to initiate labor at term
Exercise to stimulate contractions
Digital stimulation (feathering) to stimulate endogenous oxytocin
Calcium borogluconate IV
No response to Ca -> oxytocin
Perform a vaginal exam
If not successful C-section
Management of secondary inertia
Secondary uterine inertia is the failure to progress once labor is initiated (uterine fatigue).
Correction of the cause of dystocia
Nothing
OR
Ca2+, oxytocin C-sec as before.
Faulty foetal disposition
Presentation: longitudinal axis of the foetus and the maternal birth canal
Longitudinal (anterior/posterior), transverse (V/D)
Position: the surface of the maternal birth canal to which the fetal vertebral column is applied (D/V/LL/RL)
Posture: position of the appendages (flexion/extension of neck or limbs)
Disproportion:
Foetomaternal disproportion – when the foetus is larger than the capacity of the pelvis
Normal fetal disposition is described as cranial longitudinal presentation, dorsal position, extended posture.
When to get involved with dystocia
Second stage parturition
Expulsion of the foetus
Weak, irregular straining for more than 2– 4 hours
Strong, regular straining for more than 20– 30 minutes
Fetal fluid was passed more than 2– 3 hours previously, but nothing more has happened
Greenish discharge is seen but no puppy is born within 2– 4 hours
(red-brown in the queen)
More than 2– 4 hours have passed since the birth of the last puppy and more remain
The bitch has been in the second stage of parturition for more than 12 hours
Foetal distress
Normal fetal HR = 180-240 bpm
<180bmp = Foetal distress
Foetal HR <150bpm at full term = immediate intervention required
managment for dystocia
Establish a tentative treatment plan:
Conservative treatment
Manipulative treatment
Drug therapy-
Ecbolic (oxytocin)
Calcium
Tocolytic (clenbuterol-reduces contractions)
Surgical treatment-
Epidural anaesthesia
Episiotomy-enlarge birth canal
Caesarean operation
Euthanasia
Manipulative Treatment:
Repulsion-
Pushing the fetus out of the pelvis back into the abdomen to give more room (may be impossible if dam straining)
Correction-
Correction of the abnormal orientation
Rotation or version-
Alteration of alignment of long axis or transverse axis of fetus
LOTS of lubrication and a normal sized foetus required!
Traction:
Vectis forceps
Cup like structure over back of head of the fetus
USE WITH CAUTION
Medical management:
Ecbolic drugs e.g. Oxytocin
Contraindicated in cases of obstructive dystocia
Calcium gluconate
ONLY when:
Bitch is healthy
Cervix is dilated
Foetal size and positioning are appropriate
Foetal HR is normal
Emergency Cesarean Section indications:
Primary or secondary uterine inertia nonresponsive to medical therapy
Uterine rupture or torsion
Fetal malposition without success of correction by manipulation vaginally.
Fetal death with remaining viable but distressed fetuses.
Fetal distress with decreased heart rate.
150-180 bpm consider CS
<150 bpm – immediate CS
managment of Postpartum bitches/queens
Normal
Slightly elevated temperature (upto 39.2)
Serosanguinous vaginal discharge 3-6 weeks
Uterine involution 12-15 weeks
Abnormal
Temperature >39.5
Thick dark vaginal discharge
Haemorrhagic discharge more than a drop
Serosanguinous discharge >6 weeks
When to get involved-
Third stage parturition
Expulsion of the placenta
All the placentas have not been passed within 4– 6 hours (although placental numbers may be difficult to determine if the bitch eats them)
The rectal temperature is higher than 39.5°C (101.3°F)
There is continuing severe genital haemorrhage
The lochia are putrid or foul smelling
The general condition of the bitch is abnormal
The general condition of any of the puppies is abnormal.
comon female rabbit reproductive conditions
Normal pregnancy – need to know normal
Extrauterine pregnancy
Not uncommon
Escape of fertilised ovum or rupture of a pregnant uterus
Fetus becomes mummified
Dystocia
Rare
Pseudopregnancy
Reflex ovulators
Ovulation occurs approx. 10 hours after mating
Or by being mounted by another female PSEUDOPREGNANCY
Lasts for 16-18 days
Territorial, nest building
Condition self-limiting
Pregnancy toxaemia-
Susceptible during late gestation
Predisposing factors = obesity, stress, reduced appetite
Depression, weakness, collapse, abortion, seizures and death
Diagnostics: history, clinical signs, acidic urine, ketonuria, proteinuria
Uterine disorders
Pyometra
Purulent vaginal discharge
Lethargy
Inappetent
Enlarged uterus palpable, ultrasonography, cytology, haematology, serum biochemistry
Mucometra
Build up of mucus within uterine lumen
Hydrometra
Build up of transudate fluid in the uterus
Weight gain, but decline in body condition, anorexia, respiratory compromise, abdominal enlargement
Clinical signs, ultrasonography
Neoplasia-
Uterine adenocarcinoma-
Most common tumour in female entire rabbits
Serosanguinous vaginal discharge or haematuria
Nonspecific signs -> anorexia, depression
Dyspnoea if pulmonary metastasis
Diagnosis -> palpation, radiography (chest as well), ultrasonography, histopathology
Often multicentric and involve both horns of the uterus
Metastasis via local spread into the peritoneum and other abdominal organs -> liver
Metastasis via haematogenous route lungs, brain, skin or bones
Cystic mammary glands may be seen in association with this
pregnancy landmarks of rabbits
Gestation = 30-32 days
Often can gently palpate olive-sized masses from day 10
Fetuses can be seen on ultrasound from day 12
Fetuses difficult to feel abdominally from day 14
Parturition often day 30-32 – usually in the morning and quick
Fetuses will not survive after day 35
mamary gland disease in rabbits
Mammary masses
Progression from cystic mastitis
Development of irregular sized, fluctuant, subcutaneous nodules
Discharge – milk or amber fluid
Clinical signs, FNA and cytology
Mastitis
Lactating or pseudopregnant does
Common isolates
Staphylococcus aureus
Pasteurella spp.
Streptococcus spp.
Hot, swollen, firm, painful glands
Pyrexia
Depression
Clinical signs, culture and sensitivity.
male rabbit repro issues
Testicular tumour-
Seminomas, interstitial cell tumours, Sertoli cell tumours, lymphoma
Non-painful, firm, nodular testicular enlargement
Cryptorchidism-
Normally descend by 12 weeks
Scrotal sac does not develop on the side of the cryptorchid testicle
Orchitis and epididymitis
Bacteria Pasteurella multocida
Viral Myxomatosis
Trauma- Bite wounds, testicular evisceration and secondary infection
Swollen testes/scrotum, depression, anorexia
Venereal spirochetosis-
Treponema paraluis cuniculi
Redness, oedema, vesicles, ulcers, scabs around perineum and genitalia (+ face)
Clinical signs, microscopic visualisation, silver stains on biopsy, serological testing
repro disease in ferrets
Hyperoestrogenism (prolonged oestrus in entire female ferret)
Pseudopregnancy
Uterine disease
Pyometra, mucometra and hydrometra
Neoplasia
Mastitis
Prostatic disease
Adrenal disease (surgically neutered ferrets)
Oestrus cycle - ferrets
Seasonally polyoestrus.
Jills remain in oestrus until they are mated, or chemically brought out of oestrus, or the day length shortens.
Pro-oestrus indicated by increase in vulva swelling. Oestrus follows – will see large, swollen vulva & behavioural changes.
Prolonged oestrus = increases risk of persistent hyperoestrogenism development of pancytopenia due to bone marrow suppression.
Induced/reflex ovulators
Mating a rough process
Gestation 42 days
Litter size 6-8
Persistent oestrus ->pancytopenia
Subcutaneous and mucosal petechiae
Ecchymoses
Swollen vulva
Pale mucous membranes
Abdominal distension
Blood from cephalic vein
Poor prognosis
pseudo pregnancy in jills
Susceptible to pseudopregnancy ->implantation failure due to effects of photoperiod or lack of conception.
Associated with HCG injection or mated with a vasectomised hob
CS – weight gain, mammary enlargement & nesting behaviour.
Pseudopregnant jills may develop a fuller hair coat.
After the ‘whelping’ date jill will cycle back to normal
adrenal disese in ferrrets
Correlation with surgical neutering
Increase in concentrations of gonadotrophins loss of negative feedback stimulation of adrenal cortex adrenocortical hyperplasia and tumour formation
CS symmetrical alopecia, ‘rat tail’, pruritis
Vulva swelling
Recurrence of sexual behaviour
Urinary incontinence prostatic enlargement
repro considerations in gerbils
High incidence of ovarian disease
Ovarian cysts
Neoplasia
Clinical signs: abdominal distension, bilateral alopecia, weight loss, decrease appetite, respiratory effort.
Diagnosis: clinical signs, imaging
repro considerations in hamsers
Pyometra (hamsters & gerbils)
Care not to misinterpret in hamsters
Diagnosis: clinical signs, ultrasonography, cytology.
repro considerations in rats and mice
Neoplasia (mammary tumours)
Rats - subcutaneous fibroadenoma
Oestrogen and prolactin are thought to playa role in tumour development.
? Early neutering as a preventative measure
repro consideration in guinea pigs
Reproductive disease common
Cystic ovaries
Dystocia
Pregnancy toxaemia
Neoplasia
Cystic ovaries
Abdominal distension, lethargy, depression, bilateral alopecia in the area of the flank.
Cysts often contain clear fluid
May see subsequent uterine pathology
Diagnosis Ultrasound
Dystocia
Fusion of the pubic symphysis in older sows that have not given birth predisposes to dystocia
Normal parturition is quick (within 30 minutes)
Gestation 59-72 days (average = 65 days)
Clinical signs: unproductive contractions, straining, bloody-green/brown vulvar discharge
Pregnancy toxaemia
Last 2 weeks of gestation or the week following birth.
Acute onset lethargy, anorexia, dyspnoea, decreased urine production, acetone breath.
Hypoglycaemia, ketonemic, proteinuric and aciduric
How common is infertility in bulls?
Complete infertility
~ 5-10%
Sub fertility
20%+
Fully fertile mature bull running with 50 cycling healthy cows should..
60% in calf in 3 weeks
<10% empty after 9 weeks
Bull Breeding Soundness Evaluation
Physical exam- BCS, Heart &lungs, Eyes, Jaw, Lameness, Conformation, Abnormalities, External genitalia, Scrotal circumference
Semen analysis
Libido/service assessment
Infectious disease?
how is sperm assesed
Gross motility-
Grade 1-5
Beware dilution effect
Progressive motility-
% actively swimming forward
Beware temperature
New technology-
Dynescan
Slide preparation-
Eosin nigrosin stain
Smear
Microscope x 100
Wet prep-
Formal saline
Bioxcell
stages of labour in cattle
Stage one labour (start of contractions) : 8-12 hours
Stage two labour (from amniotic sac rupture to calf out): >2 hours
Stage three labour (passing of fetal membranes): 4-6 hours
Suggested intervention points during stage 2 (Oklahoma state research):
30 mins no progress cow
60 mins no progress heifer
Obstruction in cow partuition
‘Normal’-
Undilated cervix
Abnormal-
Undilated cervix
Uterine torsion
Pelvic abnormalities
Fresh cow check
Health check- Temp, smell, rumen fill, hydration
Appetite
+/- Ketones
+/- Vaginal exam
Metritis
Uterine infection post calving (~3 – 21dim, mainly 4-7d)
Voluminous purulent discharge
Smelly, red-brown usually
Involves the myometrium and the endometrium
Usually results in systemic illness-
Fever
Inappetence
Depression
Treatment:
Systemic antibiotics
NSAID
Fluid therapy
Energy – prop glycol
Herd situation?
Post Natal Check for cattle
Often around 30 days in milk
Two assessments:
Resumption of normal cyclicity
Uterus involuted and free of infection
Endometritis
Abscesses
Herd level assessment useful-
Proportion of cows cycling
Proportion of cows ‘dirty’
Endometritis
Uterine infection limited to the endometrium
>21dim
Often called ‘whites’ – white, purulent discharge
No systemic effects on cow health
~£160/case (AHDB)
Diagnosis – vaginal exam, metricheck, US
Treatment – if CL; PGF2a, or ‘washout’.
outcomes of a cow not seen bulling
90% - did
10%- Cystic ovaries-
Follicular cyst – thin walled, fluid filled structure >30mm diameter persisting on the ovary for >10 days in the absence of a CL
Luteal cyst/part luteinised cyst – wall thickness greater than 3mm
True anoestrus
Uterine disease- Chronic endometritis, pyometra, mucometra
Difficult to truly diagnose ovarian dysfunction at one visit!
Pregnancy Diagnosis in cattle - Techniques
Transrectal ultrasonography: >28 days
Manual palpation: >~35 days
Later gestation – fremitus, cotyledon bouncing
PAG testing – milk recording
Progesterone monitoring – eg De Laval VMS systems
Knocking
Non-return (animal does not appear to come back into heat)
Benefits of transrectal ultrasonography vs manual:
More accurate assessment of uterus (and ovarian structures)
Can detect twins
Can detect fetal heartbeat and assess viability
Less likely to cause iatrogenic abortion
Can sex embryos (55-60d)
Benefits of manual palpation
Cheap, no kit required
Possibly easier in later gestation than US
Conception Rate
Proportion of served animals Pregnant at PD
Not a true measure of fertilisation rate
(EED/LED)
AYR target >40%
Pregnancy Rate
Proportion of eligible animals pregnant in a given time period (usually 21 days)
PR = Submission Rate x Conception Rate
For example: (SR 60%) x (CR 40%) = PR 24%
AYR target: >20%
Fertility visit structure on a block calving farm
Clean checks
PSM -21d
PSM -7d
PSM +7d
PSM +21d
PDs
Different strategies
PSM= planned start of mating
Block Calving KPIs
Submission Rate: >90%
Conception Rate: >60%
3 week I/C rate: >50%
6 week I/C rate: >75%
12 week empty rate: <8%
Often AI and bulls
aims of calving with heifers
Aim to calve in well-grown heifers by 24 months
Which means they need to be I/C at 15 months
Heat detection
Synchronisation
Age at first calving KPIs…
Av vs %?
Better measures?
% 2nd lact?
Why would nutrients not be getting to the tissues?
Reduced Intake-
Not wanting to eat
Disease or chronic pain
Not able to eat
Dental disease or Dysphagia
Not being allowed to eat
Social hierarchy
Not being fed enough
Poor or Inadequate diet
Poor Absorption-
Inadequate presentation of nutrients
Dental Disease
Gastrointestinal Disease
Parasitism
Diarrhoea
Ulcerative GI disease
Inflammatory disease
- Small Intestine, Colon, both Neoplasia - Lymphoma
Decreased Utilisation-
Disorder of nutrient metabolism
Liver Disease
Excessive Loss-
Protein losing enteropathy
Protein losing nephropathy
Increased Requirement-
Increased demand/Consumption
Bacterial infections
Chronic Viral infection
Neoplasia
Abdominal Ultrasonography In context of weight loss, can give information on;
Thickness of Small intestine and Colon
Assess characteristic of thickening
Are mural layers visible?
Peritoneal fluid volume
Presence of intra-abdominal masses
Liver evaluation (or u/s guided biopsy)
Gastroscopy In context of weight loss, can give information on;
Weight loss generally only present in more advanced cases of gastric ulceration
Altered or reduced appetite
Delayed gastric emptying
Other forms of GIT ulceration could cause weight loss through causing malabsorption
Right dorsal colitis associated with NSAID toxicity
Gastroscopic examination used to obtain trans-endoscopic duodenal mucosal biopsies
Indicated where there is evidence of small intestinal malabsorption
Abdominocentesis
Assess for presence of changes in peritoneal fluid
Low sensitivity, but good specificity for:
Peritoneal inflammation / Bacterial involvement
WBC > 5 x109/l
Protein concentration > 20g/l
Increased Lactate concentration
Serosanguineous colour change
Neoplasia
Rare to diagnose intra-abdominal neoplasia on PF alone
<50% solid tumours exfoliate cells
Usually presents as low grade peritoneal inflammation
Oral Glucose Absorption Test (OGAT) in horses
Simple and inexpensive test to assess absorptive capacity of small intestine
horse is fasted for 12 hours
baseline oxalate-fluoride blood sample are taken
1g/kg 20% warm glucose solution is given by stomach tube. bloods are taken every 4-5 hours or until return to base line
samples are analysed for glucose and the percentage abouve the baseline is calculated
Normal
Approximate doubling of baseline serum glucose 2 hours after dosing (70-100% increase)
Partial Malabsorption
15-65% increase in serum glucose at 2 hours, or slower to peak
Total Malabsorption
Serum glucose not increasing above 15% of baseline
Faecal Blood Test
Evidence of frank blood in faeces indicates colonic/rectal bleeding
(Upper GIT bleeding is digested in the colon so not represented in faeces)
Faecal Occult blood test
Detects albumin and haemoglobin separately
Proposed to differentiate between different sources of pathology
Varying evidence for diagnostic value
exotic Reproductive conditions – follicular stasis
Pre-ovulatory egg binding
Often seen in the older, female tortoise kept alone
If follicles are not resorbed -> inflammation of the follicles ->coelomitis
CS -> anorexia, HL paresis, generalised weakness
Due to an inability to produce progesterone failure of regression of follicles.
Recent exposure to a male after a period of prior isolation?
Inappropriate diet?
Inappropriate husbandry?
Stress?
Lack of hibernation, light and temperature change?
Still in need of further research
Blood work – raised calcium, raised proteins
Ultrasonography
Advanced imaging
CT – follicles and shelled eggs- Follicle, helled egg
Ultrasonography - follicles
Treatment - medical-
Fluids
Nutritional support
Correct husbandry
Often surgical hormonal implants ineffective for these cases
COELIOTOMY
Ligation – haemoclips or absorbable monofilament suture material
Closure - absorbable monofilament suture material
Skin closure
Everting suture pattern
Suture choice often non-absorbable and strong.
Skin suture removal not to be removed for at least 6-10 weeks
PLASTRONOTOMY
Heart : in the midline intersection of the pectoral and abdominal scutes.
Plastron hinge : often between the abdominal and femoral scutes.
Abdominal veins : parallel, running in a craniocaudal direction below the plastron
plastronotomy site between heart and plastron hinge
Ovariectomy in chelonians
The prefemoral approach- Preferred method if possible – less traumatic and faster recovery time
Useful in species with a larger prefemoral fossa
Craniocaudal incision is made in the skin
Blunt dissect underlying abdominal muscles
Dissect coelomic membrane
Closure – simple interrupted or continuous pattern for coelomic membrane, muscle and fat.
Closure – everting pattern for the skin
dystocia in reptiles
Non-obstructive factors
Lack of suitable nesting site
Stress
Hypocalcaemia
Infection of oviduct
Poor muscle tone
Obstructive factors
Oversized eggs
Malformed eggs
Oviductal stricture
Space occupying lesions
No presenting signs are pathognomonic for dystocia
No signs
Abnormal posture
Hind limb paresis
Anorexia
Malodorous cloacal discharge
Faecal or urinary retention
Cloacal organ prolapse
Treatment-
Fluids
Nutritional Support
Provision of nesting site
Calcium gluconate
Oxytocin-
Induces parturition/egg laying when uterine inertia is present (as long as there is no evidence of obstruction)
chelonians- Hydrate the tortoise soak in warm shallow bath
Prepare suitable nest site
Calcium gluconate if appropriate
Oxytocin
SURGERY
Cloacal ovocentesis
lizards and snakes- More commonly seen in oviparous (egg-laying snakes) pythons, rat snakes, king snakes milk snake
Less commonly seen in ovoviviparous (live-bearing) snakes boas, garter snakes
dystocia in birds
Dystocia
Caudal uterus
Vagina
Uterovaginal sphincter
EMERGENCY if compresses blood vessels and/or nerves
Radiography (conscious)
Treatment-
Stabilisation
Warmth
Fluid therapy
Calcium
PGE2 gel
GA -> manual delivery
Chronic egg laying in birds
Small psittacines -> cockatiels
Produce repeated clutches or a larger than normal clutch
Depletion of calcium and protein stores
Poor bone density
Weight loss
Pathological fractures
Dystocia
Environmental modification
Reduce photoperiod
Remove nesting material
Behavioural modification
Training
Leaving in eggs
Nutritional modification
Encourage foraging
Hormonal manipulation
Deslorelin (Suprelorin)
Desensitises GnRH receptors, thereby decreasing release of LH & FSH
Cabergoline (Galastop)
Potent selective inhibition of prolactin
May have beneficial effect in birds with chronic egg laying.
In birds it also conjectured that its action could be mediated via its effect as a dopamine agonist.
Leuprolide acetate (Lupron)
Leuprolide acetate is a synthetic nonapeptide that is a potent gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor (GnRHR) agonist
breeding Soundness Exam for stallions
■ History
■ General physical evaluation-
Vision, cardiopulmonary, locomotor
Potential genetic/hereditary (e.g: parrot
mouth, cataract, chriptorchidism)
Blindness
lameness
Ataxia
Penis, prepuce
Penile paralisis
Scrotum and testes
Internal genitalia (manual palpation and
ultrasound)
■ Semen collection and evaluation ( 2
collections 1 h apart)
■ Libido and mating behavior
■ Examination of internal and external genitalia
■ culture of urethra/penile/fossa glandis
■ Ancillary procedures
■ Serology, virology, endocrinology, endoscopy,
genetics/karyotype
Estimation of Daily Sperm Output (DSO)
■ DSO is linearly related to
testis mass:
■ Mass can be estimated
by measuring testis
volume:
■ TV=0.52heightwidth
length
■ DSO=(0.024TV)-0.76
(billions)
Semen Evaluation methods
■ Odour
■ Volume
■ Color
■ Sperm concentration (100-400 million/ml)
■ Total number of sperm
■ Sperm motility
■ Semen pH (optional)
■ Sperm morphology
■ Cytology - other cell types
■ Bacteriology / virology
■ Flow cytometry/fluorescence(advanced)
Sperm Motility
■ Subjective estimate:
■ Temperature
■ Dilution
■ Total motility
■ Progressive motility
■ Computerized motility analysis
Sperm Morphology
■ Classification systems:
■ Primary vs secondary
■ Major vs minor
■ compensable vs
noncompensable
■ Methods:
■ Stains (eosin-nigrosin)
■ FORMOL-saline wet
mount preparations
■ 1000x magnification
Oligospermia/azoospermia
■ Obstructive disease
■ Alkaline phosphatase
■ Testicular degeneration (Idiopatic or after
insult)
■ Testicular hypoplasia
■ Overuse
Diseases Of Scrotum, Testis And Epididymis in stallions
■ Hydrocoele/
haematocele
■ Inguinal hernia
■ Orchitis/epididymitis:
■ Trauma
■ Infectious
Thermal Injury To The Testis
Thermoregulation:
■ pampiniform plexus
■ cremaster muscle
■ scrotum
■ Spermatocytes appear most vulnerable to
thermal injury
■ Acute thermal injury may require 60 days
(duration of spermatogenesis) for recovery
Diseases Of The Accessory Glands
■ Vesicular adenitis (seminal vesiculitis):
■ Bulls
■ stallions
■ Prostatitis:
■ Dogs
■ Prostatic hyperplasia / neoplasia
■ Congenital defects (rare)
Lesions Of Penis And Prepuce
Trauma
■ common problem
■ paraphimosis
■ phimosis
■ rupture of corpus cavernosum
■ denervation
■ Congenital
■ Infectious
viral GI disease in cattle
- Rotavirus
- Coronavirus
- Bovine Viral Diarrhoea
bacterial GI disease in cattle
E.coli
* Salmonella species
* Clostridia species
* Mycobacterium paratuberculosis (Johne’s)
Parasitic GI disease in cattle
- Protozoal-
- Cryptosporidium
- Cocci
- Worms-
- Strongyles
- Fluke
nutritional GI disease in cattle
- Milk scours
- Peri-weaning Scours
- SARA
- Grain overload
- Dietary changes
Scour Check Kits
- Used to detect common pathogens in
young calves - Rotavirus, Coronavirus,
Cryptosporidum & E. coli - Can be used on farm, results in 10
minutes from small faecal sample - Easy to interpret - two lines positive,
one line negative
Faecal Worm Egg Counts
Faecal Worm Egg Counts
* Preparation of faeces in a salt solution to
look for worm eggs or cocci oosysts
* Quick test to indirectly assess parasite
burden
* Test performed off farm either in-house
or sent off to external lab
* Used to look for gut worms and cocci
oocysts in youngstock & adults
* Can also be used in series to test wormer
efficacy
Faecal Culture for cattle
Microbiology for bacterial
causes of GI disease.
* Can be used for Salmonella,
Johnes, Clostridial toxin
detection and
Rota/Coronavirus
* Can be done in-house or sent
to external lab
* Can be slow to yield result
bulk Milk Surveillance
- Used to monitor disease in
adult cows - Can be used to monitor Fluke,
BVD, IBR, Johnes, Salmonella - Useful comparing results year
on year - Take into account vaccination
status for some diseases when
interpreting results
Windsucker Test
Part the vulvar lips and
listen for an in-rush of air
* Tests the integrity of the
vaginal vestibular sphincter in mares
Caslick’s ind
a x l
where a= the angle of declination of the mares external genitles compared to the anus
l= the effective leanth of the vulva
tests the nesesity of a caslick procedure
Caslick’s procedure
Vulvoplasty in mares
what can be felt on rectal palpation of the mare
Uterus:
– Size & symmetry (pregnancy,
pyometra)
– Tone (estrus, diestrus,
pregnancy)
– Contents (fluid, fetus)
– Other abnormalities (masses,
adhesions)
Ovaries
– Size & position
– Shape (ovulation fossa)
– Consistency
– Follicular activity
– CL not palpable
* Cervix:
– Length
– Tone (Estrus, Diestrus,
Pregnancy)
– Abnormalities (difficult to feel
rectally)
visual exam of the mare repro tract
peculum exam
■ Vaginoscopy
Allows to evaluate:
A. Changes in cervix during estrus
cycle
ESTRUS
■ Secretions ↑ (moist)
■ Vascularity ↑ (pink)
■ Relaxation ↑ (open)
B. Abnormalities
■ Anatomical
■ Accumulation material (urine, pus,
blood)
■ Inflammation (vaginitis, cervicitis)
■ Varicosities
■ Tears/Lacerations (cervix, vagina)
■ Adhesions
surgical Reproduction management of female mammles
‘Spay’ – removal of the ovaries and uterus.
Ovariectomy
Hysterectomy (total vs supracervical/subtotal)
Ovariohysterectomy
Ovariohystero-partial vaginectomy - rabbits
surgical Reproduction management of
male mammels
‘Castrate’ – removal of the testicles:
Scrotal-
Open
Closed
Prescrotal-
Open
Closed
Abdominal approach
Vasectomy
Vas deferens ligated and incised
medicla Reproduction management of mammels– male & female.
Medical management
Implants
Hormonal injections
Options vary depending on the species
Separation of the two sexes
Isolation of social species ->welfare implications
Housing animals of same sex may lead to fighting
reproductive managemnt of ferrets
Reproductive management of ferrets
Unique ->females must be taken out of season
If surgically neutered -> may predispose to adrenal disease
Pineal gland
A small conical endocrine gland
Attached by stalk to the dorsal wall of the third ventricle of the cerebrum
Major source of melatonin biosynthesis
Melatonin
Hormone synthesised and released during hours of darkness
Responsible for function of body related to photoperiod
Melatonin produced during dark phase of the day -> as longer days this suppression is lost-> get pulsatile release of GnRH Stimulates production of LH and FSH-> Stimulates the gonads to produce either oestradiol or testosterone.
Negative feedback on hypothalmus to prevent excessive secretion
What happens when we neuter them?
Loss of negative feedback-> Increase in the release of LH and FSH-> Persistently stimulate respective receptors in the adrenal cortex
Hobs usually reach puberty at approximately 9 months old
Jills reach sexual maturity in the first Spring after birth, at approximately 9 months old
Occasionally jills will show signs of oestrus in the first AUTUMN if
females were born early in the season
weather conditions are suitable
photoperiod is suitable.
Persistent oestrus pancytopenia
Subcutaneous and mucosal petechiae
Ecchymoses
Swollen vulva
Pale mucous membranes
Abdominal distension
Natural mating (vasectomised male)-
Good option for owners/working ferreters with many jills.
Mating appears violent biting and dragging the jill by neck
Pseudopregnancy lasts approximately 42 days
Increased aggression towards owners and cage mates
Abdominal enlargement
Mammary gland development
Risk of disease transmission if vasectomised hobs shared.
Will not change smell or hormonal behaviour
Leaves options for future breeding of the female
Delvosteron injection (jill jab)- Proligestone (Delvosteron, MSD Animal Health)
Suppresses/postpones the breeding season – maintains jill in anoestrus
Give 50mg per ferret in the Spring = 0.5ml per jill, administered via SC route
Signs of season often reduced within 10 -11 days
One injection often covers whole breeding season – but not always!
Pyometra risk
May be discontinued in 2023
Hormonal implant (Deslorelin)- (Deslorelin acetate)
GnRH agonist
Licensed in males (9.4mg), off license in females
4.7mg used in both sexes but off license
Reversible control of ovarian activity
Ovarian suppression for approximately 18-24 months
Easy to place as an outpatient
Brief GA
Placed SC between scapulae
Surgical neutering-
Ovariectomy or ovariohysterectomy depending on concurrent disease
Castration
Permanent method
Likelihood of developing adrenal disease.
reproductive managment of female rabbits
Spaying rabbits prevents
Unwanted pregnancies
Uterine disease
Cystic endometrial hyperplasia
Pseudopregnancy
Aneurysm
Neoplasia
Rabbits are sexually mature at 4-6 months
Neoplasia – adenocarcinoma 50-80% in certain breeds >4 years old
Free living European hares (feral) in Australia 21% of does had reproductive disease
Post mortem examination in pet rabbits
Mean year for neoplasia = 6 years
Youngest with neoplasia confirmed = 12 months.
Can we just perform ovariectomy?
Does depend on how early uterine disease can occur.
Anecdotally, reported in a 6 month old rabbit!
Unique anatomy
Two uterine horns
Two cervices
No uterine body
Long and flaccid vagina
Often large amount of uterine fat in mature rabbits
Vagina fills with urine during micturition
Techniques-
Ventral midline abdominal approach
Ovariovaginectomy often described
2 cervices, empty directly into the large vagina
Ligate ovarian pedicles and ligate at cranial vagina
Ligature placed around vaginal side of cervices
Risk of urine leakage through the vaginal stump
Must use a transfixing ligature
Oversew
Risk of including ureters and blood vessels supplying the bladder if ligature placed too low
Techniques
Ventral midline abdominal approach
Ligate ovarian pedicles and ligate around the uterine side of the cervices
Disadvantage
Leaves a small amount of residual uterine tissue
Advantages
Prevents the risk of urine leakage
Minimises the risk of infection from the vagina entering the abdomen cervices are a natural barrier
Other points to consider
Prone to fat necrosis
Adhesions ‘internal scar tissue’ form around devitalised or traumatised tissue.
To minimise the risk of adhesions
Minimise tissue handling, always use instruments
Gentle surgical technique
Care with haemostasis
Never use dry swabs
Irrigate tissues with warmed sterile saline
Choose suture material wisely!
Use the finest suture material that is practical
Do not use biological sutures (cat gut)
reproductive managment of male rabbits
Medical reproductive management in rabbits is not used
Testicles descend into scrotal sacs at 10-12 weeks
Remember open inguinal ring
Options for castration
Scrotal
Open
Closed
Pre-scrotal
Open
Closed
Abdominal Indicated for true cryptorchids
reproductive managment of female rodents
Reproductive management of rodents often requires surgery
Approach for the female
Traditional ventral midline
Flank
Flank approach – advantages
Less invasive
Quicker recovery time
Less risk of infection
Less risk of suture disruption and complications
Less risk of evisceration secondary to dehiscence of wound
Achieved via a bilateral or unilateral flank incision
Find your landmarks. Identify
The spine
The last rib
The pelvis
Gentle simultaneous pressure on these three points will produce a bulge of soft tissue in the centre incision site.
Incise through skin (can be thick)
Blunt dissect through muscles
The external oblique
Internal laminar muscles
Once you have incised the muscle there will be internal fat
Fat will be associated with
The reproductive tract
The kidneys
The spleen
The GI tract
Retract the fat until you can see the distal uterine horn and ovary
Ligate the ovarian pedicle
In the guinea pig can perform whole procedure from the one incision
In the rat often a bilateral flank approach is required.
spaying in guinepigs
Ventral midline approach
Large incision needed
Challenging – deep body cavity, ovaries located cranially and dorsally
Longer surgery time
Longer recovery time
If large ovarian cysts can still perform flank approach
Remove fluid from cysts with a sterile needle and syringe.
reproductive managment of male rodents
Options for castration
Scrotal - true aseptic surgical preparation difficult
Open
Closed
Prescrotal - improved aseptic surgical preparation: requires 2 separate incisions
Open
Closed
Abdominal approach
Considered fertile for up to 8 weeks following castration
defences agianst mastitis
Defenses:
The Teat (Streak) Canal
Keratinocytes
Lipid secretions
Sphincter muscle
Phagocytes (somatic cells)
Frequent milking
Antibodies
Lactoferrin
clinical signs of mastitis in the individual cow
Abnormal milk and/or udder
Secretion
Size
Texture
Agalactia
Blind or non-functional glands
Hungry neonate
Pain – altered gait
Enlargement of the supramammary lymph nodes
Teat and skin lesions
California Milk Test
detects SUB-CLINICAL disease
thickening in the fluid indicates mastitis- degree of thickening is concurent with cell count
grades of mastitis
Classifications:
Peracute/ acute / chronic
Clinical / sub-clinical
Environmental / contagious
From a therapeutic perspective may be graded as
Mild - abnormal milk
Moderate - abnormal milk and abnormal gland
Severe - abnormal milk, abnormal gland, and sick cow
Septic mastitis
Most commonly caused by coliforms
Systemic signs of endotoxemia in severe cases
weakness, depression, inappetence
fever, scleral injection
tachycardia, tachypnea
rumen stasis, diarrhea
Endotoxaemia induces hypocalcaemia
Bacteraemia
Mortality common with endotoxic shock,
MODS
Summer mastitis
“Dry cow” or “Summer” mastitis, caused by Trueperella pyogenes
Most infections occur during the dry period
The incidence of infection is increased by filthy, wet, or muddy environments for dry cows
Purulent infection often leads to abscessation of the gland
The organism may be spread by flies
