Psycopathology Flashcards
Define Psycopathology
scientific study of psychological disorders
What are social norms?
rules of behaviour that are considered acceptable in a group/society
What are deviation from social norms?
behaviours that break the implicit or explicit rules that exist within society
What is statistical infrequency?
a persons thinking/behaviour is abnormal if its statistically rare and unusual
What is the criteria for being in “good health”
- high self esteem and identity
- personal growth
- accurate perception of reality
- Autonomy
- Mastery of the environment
What is the criteria of Failure to Function Adequately?
Maladaptiveness
Irrationality
Unpredictablity/Loss of Control
Observer discomfort
Suffering
Define cognitive
hiw we process information
What is a phobia?
a disorder characterised by high levels of anxiety in response to a particular stimulus
What is depression?
a mood disorder where an individual feels sad and lacks interest in their usual activities
What are behavioural characteristics of Depression?
- change in activity levels
- disruption of sleep and eating behaviour
- Aggression and self harm
What are emotional characteristics of depression?
- lowered mood
- anger
- lowered self-esteem
What are emotional characteristics of depression?
- lowered mood
- anger
- lowered self-esteem
What are the cognitive characteristics of depression?
- attending to and dwelling on the negative
- absolutist thinking(black and white thinking)
- Poor concentration
What is Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)?
an anxiety disorder where anxiety arises from both obsessions and compulsions
compulsions are a response to obsessions
What are the Behavioural characteristics of OCD?
- compulsions - behaviours performed to reduce anxiety created by obsessions
- avoidance - keeping away from situations that trigger OCD
What are emotional characteristics of ODC?
- anxiety, worry, distress
- guilt and disgust
- accompanying depression
What are the cognitive characteristics of OCD?
- obsessive
- insight into excessive anxiety
- hyper vigilance - focusing on potential hazards
What is my Maladaptiveness?
- Behaviour that prevents someone from achieving well-being an important life goals
- Seriously antisocial behaviour
what is irrationality?
Behaviour that makes no sense to others
What is unpredictability?
Impulsive behaviour that seems uncontrollable
What is observer discomfort?
Behaviour that makes other people uneasy or uncomfortable
what is suffering/personal distress?
Being affected by emotion to an excessive degree
What is the two process model?
The behaviour approach suggests that phobias are required through this model - operating and classical conditioning
How are phobias initiated?
- individual received a punishment from the stimulus
- individual associates once neutral stimulus for an unconditioned stimulus
- produces a conditioned response of fear
how are phobias maintained?
- maintained coz the avoidance of the phobic stimulant reduces fear
- This negatively reinforces the phobic behaviour
- Reinforcement tends to increase the frequency of a behaviour
Evaluate supporting evidence as a strength of the behavioural approach as an explanation of phobias
- supported by scientific evidence
- Watson and created a phobia in little Albert,
presented him with a rat whilst banging an iron bar with a hammer creating an UCR of fear - strength of behavioural examination of phobias because it demonstrates foodies can be learnt via classical conditioning
- therefore this increase of validity of the behavioural explanation
evaluate nature versus nurture as a limitation of the explanation of phobias
- limitation is that favours the nature side of the nature versus nurture debate
- The behaviour phobia are caused by experience therefore suggest that alone is causing the disorder
- limitation, it ignores any evidences suggest that phobias are caused by nature, e.g. evolutionary explanations of phobias we acquire phobias of things that have been a social danger in our evolutionary past
- Therefore this makes it difficult to determine whether nature or neuron are more influential encouraging phobias and it’s likely to be a combination of both
What is systematic desensitisation?
behavioural therapy designed to gradually reduce phobic anxiety through classical conditioning
what is counterconditioning?
Patient is taught a new association (relaxation) that runs counter to the original association (fear)
It’s impossible to be afraid and relaxed at the same time so one emotion prevent the other
What is reciprocal inhibition?
When one emotion prevents another
what are the stages of systematic desensitisation?
Relaxation
Anxiety hierarchy
Exposure
what happens during the relaxation stage in systematic desensitisation?
The therapist teach the patient relaxation techniques, e.g. deep breathing and mindfulness
what happens in the second stage (anxiety hierarchy) of systematic desensitisation?
therapist and client established at least to most fearful situation of the phobic stimuli
what happens during the third stage (exposure) of systematic desensitisation?
patient is exposed to the phobic stimuli while in a relaxed state
takes place across several sessions starting at the bottom of the anxiety hierarchy gradually working their way to the top.
Evaluate no side effects as a strength of systematic desensitisation
- no side effects
- focuses on learning, there’s no biological side effects as there would be with medication
- Strength as the treatment will lead to the patient experiencing additional difficulties
- Therefore systematic desensitisation is a useful treatment for phobias and people are likely to keep using it
Evaluate no side effects as a strength of systematic desensitisation
- no side effects
- focuses on learning, there’s no biological side effects as there would be with medication
- Strength as the treatment will lead to the patient experiencing additional difficulties
- Therefore systematic desensitisation is a useful treatment for phobias and people are likely to keep using it
evaluate how systematic desensitisation only works with some phobias as limitation
- Only works with some phobias
- Evidence shows is not effective with social phobias such as agoraphobia, also wouldn’t work with phobias where gradual exposure wouldn’t be possible e.g. if someone was scared of death
- Limitation because you can only be used to treat some focus not all of them therefore it’s only of limited use
What is flooding?
phobia therapy where there’s no graduation of the phobic stimulus
highest fee is confronted immediately
usually one session
Why does flooding work?
due to extinction
occurs because the condition stimulant (phobia) is encountered without the unconditioned stimulus (original trauma) and is therefore extinguished
Fair responses have a time limit as adrenaline levels naturally decrease
What is extinction?
without the option of avoiding instant patient quickly learned that the phobia is harmless
Evaluate less time consuming as a strength of flooding
- Takes less time than systematic desensitisation
- S.D 6 to 8 sessions which can take a long time whereas flooding is only one session
- strength as people with busy lives might not be able to commit to so many sessions therefore clients may opt to choosing flooding over S.D
what is ELLIS’ ABC model?
ELLIS believed that depression was results from irrational thoughts which interfere with us being happy and free
A - activating event
B - belief (rational/irrational)
C- consequence
what is masturbatory thinking?
the source of a rational belief
thinking that certain ideas must be true for an individual to be happy
what are ELLIS’ three most important irrational beliefs?
- I must approve or be accepted by people I find important
- I must do very well or I am worthless
- The world must give me happiness or I will die
Someone who hold such assumptions is bound to be disappointed or at worst depressed
You evaluate practical application as a strength of the ABC model
- lead to successful application the treatment
Rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) - form of CBT focuses disputing the individuals irrational thoughts and replacing them with effective rational beliefs
- strength as REBT greatly reduces symptoms of depression and is better than antidepressant drugs at preventing relapse
- Therefore, as a treatment is based on the ABC model it is effective and the cognitive explanation for depression must be at least partially valid
Evaluate low explanatory power as a limitation of the ABC model
- cant of explain all forms of depression
- although some cases of depression follow activating events there are other types of depression that arrives without any trigger
- Limitation because Ellis explanation only explains so kinds of depression. This suggests that the ABC model provides an incomplete explanation of depression.
What is faulty information processing?
depressed individuals feel how they do because they’re thinking is bias towards negative interpretations of the world and they lack a perceived sense of control
What is a negative self schema?
depressed people acquired a negative scheme during childhood
this could because by factors including parental rejection or criticism by teachers
These negatives schemas are activated whenever the person encounters a new situation that resembles the original conditions in which the schemas were learned
what is becks negative triad?
A pessimistic and irrational view of the three key elements in a persons belief system
The self
The world
The future
Describe the self in the negative triad
How you perceive yourself
Describe the world in the negative triad
Life experiences, for example, “I understand why people don’t like me”
Describe the future in the negative triad
what do you think of the future?
E.g. “ I’m always gonna be alone”
evaluate practical application as a strength of Becks theory
- Led to successful treatment for depression
- becks form of CBT reduces the symptoms of depression and is better than drugs at preventing relapse
- Strength because CBT greatly reduces the symptoms of depression
- Therefore as treatment is based on becks cognitive theory of depression it must be partially valid
evaluate low explanatory power as a limitation of becks theory
- cannot explain all forms of depression
- although some cases of depression all linked to cognitions, there are others where people are angry or experience hallucinations. these more complex symptoms are harder to explain using Becks theory.
- limitation as his Demi and explained some forms of depression therefore is only a partial explanation of depression
- Suggest spec theory provides an incomplete explanation and may not be valid
Evaluate over simplicity as a limitation of the cognitive approach explaining depression
- ignores evidence to suggest that biological factors such as genes may cause depression
- research suggests low levels of serotonin is linked to depression and antidepressants such as SSRIs prevent the re-absorption of serotonin which increases its levels
- Limitation because this approach ignores this evidence therefore provides an over simplistic explanation of depression
- therefore the cognitive explanation of depression may not be a full explanation
Evaluate practical application as a strength of the cognitive approach to explain depression
- lead to successful practical application
- The cognitive approach produce successful treatment for depression called cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)
- this greatly reduces the symptoms of depression and is better than antidepressant. Drugs are preventing relapse.
- Strength as the treatment is based on the assumptions of the approach the cognitive approach must be at least partially valid
What are the stages of CBT?
- thought catching
- reality testing
- diaries
- activity raising
Identify, challenge, change
What is thought catching?
Patient learns to spot their negative automatic thoughts and their negative triad
what is reality testing?
Patient learned how to logically challenge their negative thoughts by come up with evidence against them
How do diaries help in CBT?
use diaries to monitor events and identify situations where negative thinking occurs so they can be challenged
Patients may be set homework to record when they enjoyed an event always someone was nice to them
what is activity raising?
Patient makes small changes in their behaviour like building up daily social activities therefore testing their fears
Hoping you’re okay patient may partake in activities they previously enjoyed
What is the DEF model in REBT?
D - Disputing irrational thoughts
E - Effect of disputing
F - The new feelings that are produced
what is logical disputing?
Involves disputing whether the negative thought logically follows from the facts
What is empirical disputing?
disputing whether there’s actual evidence to support the negative belief
what is pragmatic disputing?
emphasises how self defeating beliefs are useless
What is effective disputing?
Whether the activating events are actually realistic or not
evaluate CBT’s effectiveness compared to drugs as a strength of CBT
- there is evidence to suggest it’s effective
- for example Holon et al found a few depressed patient relapse after 12 weeks of CBT (40%) and taking drugs (45%)
- Strength because research suggest that the treatment works therefore it can be used to prevent relapse and improve lives
Evaluate time consuming as a limitation of CBT
- Doesn’t work quickly
- CBT can take over it be affective it’s not appropriate for patients at high risk of suicide
- limitation because treatment isn’t appropriate for people who are suffering severe symptoms of depression under high risk of suicide
- Some people need faster treatment such as antidepressants
What is the genetic explanation of OCD?
- Individuals inherit specific genes related to the onset of OCD
- A variety of genes are linked to OCD
what is the COMT gene?
- COMT regulates down dopamine
what is the SERT gene?
affect transport of serotonin creating low levels
what is the meaning of polygenetic?
when a characteristic is influenced by 2 or more genes
- there are 230 genes associated with OCD suggesting that it’s polygenetic
- Different combinations of genes cause the OCD in different people
What is an obsession?
Recurring and persistent thoughts
What is a compulsion?
repetitive behaviour
Evaluate supporting evidence as a strength of the biological explanation of ODC
- supported by evidence
- Nestadt et al found that people with a first degree relative with OCD had five times greater risk of having it compared to the general population
- strength if the genetic explanation of OCD as these findings suggest OCD is inherited
the occurrence of OCD runs in families - therefore evidence suggests biological explanation is valid
Evaluate reductionism as a limitation of the biological explanation of OCD
- As it uses jeans as an explanation and ignores psychological causes
- Cromer et al found over half people with OCD had traumatic event in their past, the more trauma the more severe the symptoms
- limitation as it suggests that the approach is reductionist and a too simplistic nature theory
- Therefore the genetic approach provides an incomplete explanation of OCD
How do abnormal levels of neurotransmitters cause OCD?
people with ODC have abnormally high levels of dopamine and low levels of serotonin
- dopamine levels are high due to the COMT gene and serotonin levels are low due to the SERT gene
How do abnormal brain circuits cause OCD
cases of OCD are associated with impaired decision making
this may be a result of abnormal functioning of the side of the frontal lobe
There’s also evidence that the parahippocampal gyrus which is associated with processing unpleasant emotions functionally abnormally in OCD
what is the worry circuit
two main areas of the brain associated with OCD
Orbit frontal cortex and the caudate nucleus and thalamus
What is the Orbit Frontal Cortex?
responsible for sending worry signals which are picked up by the thalamus and directed around the body
What is the caudate nucleus
responsible for suppressing worry signals
if it isn’t working properly a person worries too much and can cause ocd
What us the thalamus
retrieves signals from the caudate nucleus and sends them back to the OFC
What us the thalamus
retrieves signals from the caudate nucleus and sends them back to the OFC
evaluate practical application as a strength of the neural explanation of OCD
- produce successful treatment for OCD
- For example, antidepressants such as SSRI’s and anti-anxiety drugs have been used to successfully treat OCD
- strength because treatments are based on the assumptions of the approach so it must be partially valid
- That is strong evidence of the neuro explanation which helps improve peoples lives
evaluate oversimplicity as a limitation of the neural explanation of OCD
- ignores psychological causes such as learning
- environmental factors also can cause OCD. It was found that over half if the people with OCD had a traumatic experience. limitation because genetic influences aren’t only the explanation of OCD.
- Limitation of the neural explanation as it suggest the approaches over simplistic
how do selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors work? (SSRI’s)
- inhibit the re-absorption of serotonin in the brain
- This enables serotonin to remain active in the synapse
- This enables the neurons to work normally
How do antianxiety drugs work?
slow down the activity of the central nervous system by enhancing the activity of GABA
GABA has a general quieting effect on many neurons in the brain
evaluate less time as a strength of using drugs to treat OCD
- Require little effort from the patient
- last time is required compared to therapies like CBT where the patient has to attend regular meetings
- Strength as it means patients are more likely to continue taking the drugs and will potentially recover quickly. also cheaper compared to CBT.
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What is a counter argument for drugs treating OCD?
drugs only reduce some of the symptoms they are not a cure
They reduce the symptoms of depression associated with OCD but not the obsessive symptoms. This may explain why relapse rates are so high if only drug treatments are used.
evaluate side effects as a limitation of drug treatments for OCD
- Drugs have side effects
- SSRI’s can cause sleep problems and increased risk of suicide
- limitation because the treatment will lead to the patient experiencing additional difficulties on top of their OCD symptoms which may mean they stop taking the drugs therefore they cannot be effective
