PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS AFFECTING BEHAVIOR AND THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

Question 1

may be defined as a relatively permanent
change in behavior that is the result of practice or
experience.

Answer 1

Learning

Question 2

four basic kinds of learning

Answer 2

Habituation
Classical Conditioning
Instrumental Conditioning
Complex Learning

Question 3

in which an organism learns to
ignore a familiar and nonconsequential stimulus;

Answer 3

Habituation

Question 4

in which an organism
learns that one stimulus follows another;

Answer 4

Classical Conditioning

Question 5

in which an organism
learns that a particular response leads to a
particular consequence; and

Answer 5

Instrumental Conditioning

Question 6

in which learning involves
more than the formation of associations.

Answer 6

Complex Learning

Question 7

are especially likely to be learned
through classical conditioning processes.

Answer 7

Emotional responses

Question 8

● A basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a
previously conditioned response decreases in frequency
and eventually disappears.
● Occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented
repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus.

Answer 8

EXTINCTION

Question 9

The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned
response after a period of rest and with no further
conditioning.

Answer 9

SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY

Question 10

After a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a
particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original
stimulus produce the same response.

Question 10

After a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a
particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original
stimulus produce the same response.

Answer 10

STIMULUS GENERALIZATION

Question 11

● Occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one
another that one evokes a conditioned response but the
other does not;.
● The ability to differentiate between stimul

Answer 11

STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION

Question 12

It is learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened
or weakened (it has been made more or less likely to recur
regularly), depending on its favorable or unfavorable
consequences.

Answer 12

OPERANT CONDITIONING

Question 13

Organism operates on its environment to produce
a desirable result.

Answer 13

OPERANT

Question 14

: Original behaviors are the
natural, biological responses to the presence of a stimulus.

Answer 14

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Question 15

Applies to voluntary responses,
which an organism performs deliberately to produce a desirable outcome.

Answer 15

OPERANT CONDITIONING

Question 16

Devised this puzzle box to study the process by which a cat learns to press a paddle to escape from the box and receive food. The cat would have learned that pressing the paddle was associated with the desirable consequence of
getting food.

Answer 16

EDWARD L. THORNDIKE (1932)

Question 17

A stimulus increases the probability that a preceding
behavior will be repeated.

Answer 17

REINFORCEMENT

Question 18

● Satisfies some biological need and works naturally,
regardless of a person’s previous experience.
● e.g., Food for a hungry person, relief for a person in
pain.

Answer 18

Primary Reinforcer

Question 19

A stimulus that becomes reinforcing because of its
association with a primary reinforcer.

Answer 19

Secondary Reinforcer

Question 20

● A stimulus added to the environment that brings about
an increase in a preceding response.
● If food, water, money, or praise is provided after a
response, it is more likely that that response will occur
again in the future.

Answer 20

Positive Reinforcer

Question 21

Refers to an unpleasant stimulus whose removal
leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding
response will be repeated in the future.

Answer 21

Negative Reinforcer

Question 22

Refers to an unpleasant stimulus whose removal
leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding
response will be repeated in the future.

Answer 22

Punishment

Question 23

Behavior that is reinforced every time it occurs.

Answer 23

Continuous reinforcement schedule

Question 24

Behavior that is reinforced some but not all of the time

Answer 24

Partial reinforcement schedules

Question 25

schedules that consider the number of responses made before reinforcement is given;

Answer 25

fixed-ratio and variable-ratio schedules:

Question 26

schedules that consider the amount of time that elapses before reinforcement is provided

Answer 26

fixed-interval and variable-interval schedules:

Question 27

A formalized technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones.

Answer 27

BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

Question 28

● Not all learning is due to operant and classical conditioning. ● Activities such as learning to drive a car imply that some kinds of learning must involve higher-order processes in which people’s thoughts and memories and the way they process information account for their responses. Such situations argue against learning as the unthinking, mechanical, and automatic acquisition of associations between stimuli and responses.

Answer 28

COGNITIVE APPROACHES TO LEARNING

Question 29

Some psychologists view learning in terms of the thought processes, or cognitions, that underlie it.

Answer 29

COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY:

Question 30

Two types of learning in which no obvious prior reinforcement is present

Answer 30

LATENT LEARNING OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

Question 31

A new behavior is learned but not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it

Answer 31

LATENT LEARNING:

Question 32

Learning by watching the behavior of another person, or model

Answer 32

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

Question 33

relates to the factors that direct and energize behavior.

Answer 33

MOTIVATION

Question 34

Motivational tension, or arousal, that energizes behavior to fulfill a need.

Answer 34

DRIVE

Question 35

Many basic drives, such as hunger, thirst, sleep, and sex, are related to biological needs of the body or of the species as a whole.

Answer 35

PRIMARY DRIVE

Question 36

in which behavior fulfills no obvious biological need. Prior experience and learning bring about needs.

Answer 36

The Need for Achievement: Striving for Success The Need for Affiliation: Striving for Friendship The Need for Power: Striving for Impact on Others

Question 37

Refers to the stable, learned characteristic in which a person strives to attain a level of excellence

Answer 37

The Need for Achievement: Striving for Success

Question 38

A concern with establishing and maintaining relationships with others.

Answer 38

The Need for Affiliation: Striving for Friendship

Question 38

A tendency to seek to exert an impact on others.

Answer 38

The Need for Power: Striving for Impact on Others

Question 39

● According to instinct approaches to motivation, people and animals are born pre-programmed with sets of behaviors essential to their survival. ● Hence, sexual behavior may be a response to an instinct to reproduce, and exploratory behavior may be motivated by an instinct to examine one’s territory.

Answer 39

INSTINCT

Question 40

suggest that a lack of some basic biological requirement such as water produces a drive to obtain that requirement (in this case, the thirst drive).

Answer 40

Drive-reduction approaches to motivation

Question 41

Seek to explain behavior in which the goal is to maintain or increase excitement

Answer 41

AROUSAL

Question 42

When a luscious dessert appears on the table after a filling meal, its appeal has little or nothing to do with internal drives or the maintenance of arousal

Answer 42

INCENTIVE

Question 43

suggest that motivation is a product of people’s thoughts, expectations, and goals – their cognitions.

Answer 43

COGNITIVE

Question 44

causes us to participate in an activity for our own enjoyment rather than for any concrete, tangible reward that it will bring us

Answer 44

Intrinsic motivation

Question 45

causes us to do something for money, a grade, or some other concrete, tangible reward.

Answer 45

Extrinsic motivation

Question 46

Places motivational needs in a hierarchy and suggests that before more sophisticated, higher-order needs can be met, certain primary needs must be satisfied (a pyramid can represent the model with the more basic needs at the bottom and the higher-level needs at the top).

Answer 46

MASLOW’S MODEL

Question 47

the primary drive that received the most attention.

Answer 47

HUNGER

Question 48

FUNCTIONS OF EMOTIONS

Answer 48

Preparing us for action Shaping our future behavior Helping us interact more effectively with others

Question 49

● The belief that emotional experience is a reaction to bodily events occurring as a result of an external situation ● For example: I feel sad because I am crying.

Answer 49

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

Question 50

The belief that both physiological arousal and emotional experience are produced simultaneously by the same nerve stimulus.

Answer 50

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

Question 51

The belief that emotions are determined jointly by a nonspecific kind of physiological arousal and its interpretation, based on environmental cues.

Answer 51

Schachter-Singer theory of emotion

Question 52

Perception of being male or female

Answer 52

GENDER

Question 53

Are expectations, defined by society, of what is appropriate behavior for men and women.

Answer 53

GENDER ROLES

Question 54

endowed with competence-related traits

Answer 54

Gender-role stereotype for men

Question 55

they are seen in terms of their capacity for warmth and expressiveness

Answer 55

Gender-role stereotype for women

Question 56

Mental frameworks produced by socialization experiences that organize and guide a child’s understanding of information relevant to gender

Answer 56

GENDER SCHEMAS

Question 57

Areas of body that have an unusually rich array of nerve receptors are particularly sensitive, not just to sexual touch but to any kind of touch.

Answer 57

Erogenous Zones

Question 58

The pattern of enduring characteristics that produce consistency and individuality in a given person

Answer 58

PERSONALITY

Question 59

Four traditional perspectives in the study of personality:

Answer 59

1. Psychodynamic perspectives 2. Behavioristic Perspectives (including social cognitive theory) 3. Humanistic Perspectives 4. Trait Perspectives

Question 60

Creator of psychoanalytic theory.

Answer 60

Sigmund Freud

Question 61

■ Small part that shows above the surface of the water. ■ Our current awareness.

Answer 61

CONSCIOUS

Question 62

All the information that is not currently ‘on our mind’ but that we could bring into consciousness if called upon to do so.

Answer 62

PRECONSCIOUS

Question 63

■ The much larger mass of the iceberg below the water. ■ A storehouse of impulses, wishes, and inaccessible memories that affect our thoughts and behavior.

Answer 63

UNCONSCIOUS

Question 64

The doctrine that all thoughts, emotions, and actions have causes

Answer 64

Psychological Determinism

Question 65

● A completely unconscious, pleasure-seeking, amoral part of the personality that exists at birth, containing all of the basic biological drives: hunger, thirst, self-preservation, and sex ● It is present in the newborn infant and consists of the most basic biological impulses or drives: the need to eat, to drink, to eliminate wastes, to avoid pain, and to gain sexual (sensual) pleasure. ● The most primitive part of the personality. ● Like a young child, it operates on the PLEASURE PRINCIPLE: ○ It continually strives to obtain pleasure and to avoid pain, regardless of the external circumstances.

Answer 65

ID: If It Feels Good, Do It.

Question 66

● A new part of the personality, which develops as the young child learns to consider the demands of reality. ● It works on the REALITY PRINCIPLE: ○ The need to satisfy the demands of the id only in ways that will not lead to negative consequences ○ The gratification of impulses must be delayed until the situation is appropriate. ● Essentially the executive of the personality: ○ Decides which id impulses will be satisfied and in what manner. ○ Mediates among the demands of the id, the realities of the world, and the demands of the superego.

Answer 66

EGO: The Executive Director.

Question 67

● Third part of the personality which judges whether actions are right or wrong ● Is the internalized representation of the values and morals of society. ● It is the individual’s conscience and image of the morally ideal person (called the ego ideal). ● Develops in response to parental rewards and punishments

Answer 67

SUPEREGO: The Moral Watchdog.

Question 68

The part of the personality that makes people feel guilt, or moral anxiety, when they do the wrong thing

Answer 68

conscience

Question 69

Person avoids anxiety by simply not allowing painful or dangerous thoughts to become conscious

Answer 69

Repression

Question 70

Person simply refuses to acknowledge the existence of an external source of anxiety.

Answer 70

Denial

Question 71

Person attributes own unacceptable impulses, motives, or desires to other individuals.

Answer 71

Projection

Question 72

Person creates a socially acceptable reason for an action that actually reflects unacceptable

Answer 72

Rationalization

Question 73

Person displaces hostility away from a dangerous object and onto a safer substitute

Answer 73

Displacement

Question 74

Person represses emotional reactions in favor of overly logical response to a problem.

Answer 74

Intellectualization

Question 75

Person retreats from an upsetting conflict to an early developmental stage at which no one is expected to behave maturely or responsibly.

Answer 75

Regression