MEMORY COGNITION Flashcards
1
Q
are processes that allow us to record, store,
and, later on, retrieve experiences and information.
A
Memories
2
Q
It adds richness and context to our lives, allows us to learn
from experience, and adapt to changing environments.
A
Memories
3
Q
T/F
From an evolutionary standpoint, if humans don’t have the
capacity to remember, they will not survive as species. If
one doesn’t learn from previous experiences, they will not
be able to face the struggles brought by the future.
A
T
4
Q
The mind as a processing system:
A
encodes, stores, and
retrieves information
5
Q
Involves retaining information over
time. Once in the system, information must be
filed away and saved.
A
Storage
6
Q
Refers to processes that access
stored information.
A
Retrieval
7
Q
Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968) depicts that
memory has three major components:
A
memory,
working memory (short-term memory),
and long-term
memory.
8
Q
It briefly holds incoming sensory information.
A
SENSORY MEMORY
9
Q
Most information in sensory memory fades away, but
some enters short-term memory through selective
attention.
A
T
10
Q
Representation used to retain information in
short-term memory
A
Codes
11
Q
Mental representations of some information/stimulus.
A
MEMORY CODES
12
Q
Mental images
A
Visual codes
13
Q
By sound
A
Phonological codes
14
Q
Focus on the meaning of
stimulus
A
Semantic codes
15
Q
Movement patterns
A
Motor codes
16
Q
Limited duration and capacity of information, depending on
the stimulus.
A
SHORT-TERM MEMORY: CAPACITY AND DURATION
17
Q
The limit of short-term memory storage capacity depends on the number of meaningful units that can be recalled;when presented with unrelated letters or numbers, most people can hold no more than five to nine meaningless items.
A
T
18
Q
Duration of memory in short-term
memory can be extended.
A
With Rehearsal
19
Q
Information in short-term
memory generally has a shelf life of up
to 20 seconds.
A
Without Rehearsal
20
Q
Combining individual items into larger
units of meaning which aids recall (grouping).
A
Chunking
21
Q
Cognitive scientists view short-term memory as _________, a limited-capacity system that temporarily stores and processes information.
A
SHORT-TERM MEMORY / WORKING MEMORY
22
Q
A mental workspace that stores information, actively
manipulates it, and supports other cognitive functions such as problem solving and planning.
A
T
23
Q
● Vast library of more durable stored memories.
● Unlimited capacity.
● Can endure for up to a lifetime once formed.
A
LONG-TERM MEMORY
24
Q
WAYS TO ENHANCE MEMORY
A
ENCODING
EXPOSURE AND REHEARSAL
STORAGE: RETAINING INFORMATION
RETRIEVAL: ACCESSING INFORMATION
25
● The holdings of your long-term memory must be organized if they are to be available when you want to retrieve them.
● The more effectively we _____ material into long term memory, the greater likelihood of retrieving it.
ENCODING
26
■ Encoding that is initiated intentionally.
■ Requires conscious attention (focus).
Effortful processing
27
■ Encoding that occurs without attention.
■ Information about frequency, spatial
location, and sequence of events is
often encoded automatically.
Automatic processing
28
● Mere exposure to a stimulus without focusing on it
represents shallow processing.
● Rehearsal goes beyond mere exposure.
● When we rehearse information, we are thinking about it.
EXPOSURE AND REHEARSAL
29
Involves simple, rote repetition.
■ Keeps information active in working
memory (e.g. dialling a phone number
repeatedly to place a call).
■ Rote memorization is usually not an
optimal method to transfer information
into long-term memory
Maintenance rehearsal
30
■ Involves focusing on the meaning of
information or expanding on it in some
way.
■ Involves deeper processing than
maintenance rehearsal.
■ Experiments show that it is more
effective in transferring information into
long-term memory.
Elaborative rehearsal
31
Elaborative rehearsal: Differents ways?
Mnemonic devices
Hierarchy
Visual imagery
Meaning of information
Links to your life and existing
knowledge
32
Organize information into more
meaningful units and provide extra
cues to help retrieve information
from long term memory (e.g.
exams).
Mnemonic devices (memory aid)
33
Sequence of concepts
Hierarchy
34
A mental framework that shapes how we
encode information.
Schema
35
○ As we become experts in any given field, we
developed ________ that allow us to encode
information into memory more efficiently.
○ People who display exceptional memory take
advantage of sound memory principles and
mnemonic devices.
Schema
36
STORAGE: RETAINING INFORMATION: All ways
Associative networks
Neural networks
Declarative long-term memories
Explicit memory
37
○ View long-term memory as a network of
associated nodes.
○ Each node represents a concept or unit of
information.
Associative networks
38
○ Propose that each piece of information in
memory is represented not by a single node but
by multiple nodes throughout the brain.
○ Each memory is represented by a unique pattern
of simultaneously activated nodes
Neural networks
39
○ Involves factual knowledge and includes episodic
memories (personal experiences) and semantic
memories (facts about the world and language).
○ In contrast, procedural memory is reflected in
skills and actions.
Declarative long-term memories
40
○ Conscious or intentional memory retrieval.
○ Whereas implicit memory influences our
behavior without conscious awareness.
Explicit memory
41
activate information stored in long-term
memory.
Retrieval cues
42
● More likely to occur when we have multiple cues, self generated cues and distinctive cues.
● Distinctive and emotionally arousing events are recalled most easily or vividly over time but accuracy is not guaranteed (e.g. romantic encounters, graduation,
accidents).
RETRIEVAL: ACCESSING INFORMATION
43
■ A memory of an emotionally arousing,
distinctive event.
■ Very vivid and clear that we feel we can
picture it as if it were a snapshot of a
moment in time.
Flashbulb memory
44
FORGETTING: WHY DO WE FORGET?
Encoding failure
Decay of Memory trace
Interference
Motivated forgetting
45
Failing to encode information into
long-term memory.
Encoding failure
46
Physical memory traces in
long-term memory deteriorate with misuse over time.
Decay of memory trace
47
Forgetting information because other items
in long-term memory impair our ability to retrieve it.
Interference
48
People are consciously or
unconsciously motivated to forget.
Motivated forgetting
49
is a motivational process that
protects us by blocking the conscious
recall of anxiety-arousing memories.
Repression
50
DISORDERS CONTRIBUTING TO FORGETFULNESS
Retrograde amnesia
Anterograde am
Infantile am
Alzheimer's disease
51
Memory loss for events that
occurred before the onset of amnesia.
Retrograde amnesia
52
Memory loss for events that occur
after the initial onset of amnesia.
Anterograde amnesia
53
Inability to remember experiences
from the first few years of our lives.
Infantile amnesia
54
Produces both types of amnesia
and is the leading cause of dementia among elderly
adults.
Alzheimer's disease
55
FACTORS RELATED TO FORGETTING AND
MEMORY DISTORTION
Biological
Psychological
Environmental
56
● Evolutionary adaptiveness of
forgetting.
● Inadequate brain chemical
activity.
● Memory not consolidated in the
hippocampus.
● Brain damage that produces
amnesia.
Biological
57
● Failure to encode information.
● Weak retrieval cues and
interference.
● Mental schemas distort
information.
● Motivated forgetting of
anxiety-arousing information.
Psychological
58
● Stimulus overload.
● Information lacks distinctiveness,
meaning, or organization.
● Mismatch between learning and
recall environments.
● Misinformation effects: postevent stimuli distort information.
Environmental
59
Humans have a remarkable ability to create mental
representations of the world and to manipulate them in the forms of language, thinking, reasoning, and problem solving. It includes images, ideas, concepts, and principles.
LANGUAGE AND THINKING
60
It has been called the ‘jewel in the crown of cognition’
and the ‘human essence’ since much of our thinking,
reasoning, and problem-solving
LANGUAGE
61
It consists of a system of symbols and rules for combining
these symbols in ways that can generate an infinite
number of possible messages and meanings.
LANGUAGE
62
Scientific study of the psychological
aspect of language; how people understand, produce, and
acquire language.
Psycholinguistics
63
PROPERTIES OF LANGUAGE
Symbolic and
structured
Conveys meaning
Generative and permits displacement
64
● It uses sounds, written systems,
written characters, or some other
system symbols to represent
objects like hand signals, events,
ideas, feelings, and actions.
● Symbols used in any given
language are arbitrary.
● Has a rule governed structure
called grammar - rules that
dictate how symbols can be
combined to create meaningful
units of communication.
Language is
symbolic and
structured
65
● No matter the arbitrary symbols
or grammatical rules used, once
people learn those symbols and
rules, they are able to form and
transfer mental representations
to the mind of another person.
Language
conveys meaning
66
Meaning of words
and sentences.
Semantics
67
Rules that govern the
order of words.
Syntax
68
Symbols of
languages can be combined to
generate an infinite number of
messages that have novel
meaning; letters to words to
sentences.
Generativity
69
Languages allow
us to communicate about events
and objects that are not
physically present (e.g. future
and imaginary situations).
Displacement
70
Symbols of
languages can be combined to
generate an infinite number of
messages that have novel
meaning; letters to words to
sentences.
Languages allow
us to communicate about events
and objects that are not
physically present (e.g. future
and imaginary situations).
Language is
generative and
permits
displacement
71
THE HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE
Phonemes
Morphemes
Words
Phrases
Sentence
Discourse
72
Smallest building block; smallest unit of speech
sound in a language that can signal difference
and meaning.
○ It may not have inherent meaning but it alters
meaning when combined with other elements.
○ Not necessarily syllables but sounds combined.
Phonemes
73
Smallest unit of meaning in language, stuff in
which words are formed.
Morphemes
74
○ A knowledge of the practical aspects of using
language.
○ The idea is that messages should be as clear as
possible.
○ Depending on who you are talking to, your
approach differs, you usually adjust your
speech rate, choice of words, sentence
complexity, etc.
○ Also depends on other aspects of the social
context.
Pragmatics
75
BRAIN REGIONS THAT CONTROL LANGUAGE
Broca’s area
Wernicke’s area
76
○ An important part of language formulation - even
if someone has the motor ability to form the
sounds necessary for words.
○ Necessary to form and express language; form
sounds necessary for words.
○ Located in the left hemisphere’s frontal lobe, is
most centrally involved in word production and
articulation.
Broca’s area
77
○ Located in the rear portion of the temporal lobe,
is more centrally involved in speech
comprehension.
○ Works with the angular gyrus, insular cortex, and
basal ganglia to process words and word
sequences to determine context and meaning.
Wernicke’s area
78
Assembles information
to help us understand words and
concepts .
Angular gyrus
79
Buried underneath the
outer lobes of the cerebral cortex;
important for many functions, including
motor control, emotion and
self-awareness, but is also important in
the processing of language.
Insular context
80
an impairment in speech comprehension and/or
production that can be permanent or temporary.
Aphasia
81
In infancy, babies can perceive all the phonemes that exist in all the languages of the world. Between ____ months of age, their speech discrimination narrows to include only the sounds specific to their native tongue. By ages ___, most children have learned the basic grammatical rules for combining words into meaningful sentences.
6-12
4-5
82
It is important if you want to teach children
different languages, you have to start them
young.
T
83
_________ seems to depend heavily on
__________ that permit the learning and
production of language, provided that the child is exposed to an appropriate linguistic environment during a __________ that extends from early childhood to puberty.
Language development
Innate mechanisms
Sensitive period
84
■ Important; although research findings
are not entirely consistent, it appears
that a second language is most easily
mastered and fluently spoken if it is
learned during a sensitive period.
■ Ranges from early childhood, possibly,
to mid-adolescence.
■ There is a study that bilingual children
tend to perform better than monolingual
children on a variety of cognitive tasks.
Sensitive period
85
● From a biological perspective, thought exists as patterns of neural activity.
● At a psychological level, thinking may seem to be the internal language of the mind – somewhat like “inner speech” – that actually uses several mental activities.
Thinking
86
MODES OF THOUGHT
Propositional thought
Imaginal thought
Motoric thought
87
Verbal sentences that we say or
hear in our minds.
○ Expresses propositions or statements such as
“I’m hungry”
Propositional thought
88
Images that we can see, hear or feel in
our mind.
Imaginal thought
89
Mental representations of motor
movements (e.g. throwing of objects).
Motoric thought
90
It helps us acquire knowledge, make
sound decisions, and solve problems
REASONING
91
Reasoning from the top
down, that is, from
general principles to a
conclusion about a
specific case
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
92
Reasoning from the
bottom up, starting
with specific facts and
trying to develop a
general principle
INDUCTIVE REASONING
93
Scientists use deduction
when they discover
general principles or
laws, as a result of
observing a number of
specific instances of a
phenomenon
F
Induction
94
STUMBLING BLOCKS IN REASONING
Distraction by irrelevant information
Belief Bias
Emotions and Framing
95
When people don’t focus on relevant information
and take into account irrelevant information that
leads them astray.
Distraction by irrelevant information
96
Tendency to abandon logical rules in favor of own
beliefs.
Belief Bias
97
“trusting one’s gut”; can
be deceiving.
Emotion
98
Idea that the same information,
problem or options can be structured and
presented in different ways.
Framing
99
STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING
1. Understanding or framing the problem
2. Generating potential solutions
3. Testing the solutions
4. Evaluating the results
100
○ Tending to look for evidence that will confirm
what they currently believe rather than looking
for evidence that could disconfirm their beliefs.
○ Being very selective in the kind of information
they expose themselves to.
○ Can lead to manipulation of information/results.
Confirmation bias
101
○ The tendency to overestimate one’s
correctness in factual knowledge, beliefs, and
decisions.
○ It stems from people’s need to see themselves as
knowledgeable and competent.
Overconfidence
102
The ability to acquire knowledge to think and reason
effectively, and to deal adaptively with the environment.
INTELLIGENCE
103
a components subtheory that addresses the
specific cognitive processes that underlie behavior.
ROBERT STERNBERG’S TRIARCHIC THEORY OF
INTELLIGENCE
104
COMPONENTS OF TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE?
Practical
Intelligence
Analytic
Intelligence
Creative
Intelligence
105
● Also known as “street smarts.”
● Successfully solving problems
that arise in your everyday life.
● Includes:
○ Adapting to the new
environment you are in.
○ Selecting environments
in which you can
succeed.
○ Shaping your
environment to fit your
strengths
Practical
Intelligence
106
● Selecting mental processes that
will lead to success.
● Thinking critically and analytically
● Includes:
○ Planning
○ Evaluating
○ Analyzing
○ Monitoring
○ Comparing and
contrasting
○ Filtering information
Analytic
Intelligence
107
● Effectively dealing with novel
problems and automating
responses to familiar problems
● Includes:
○ Creating
○ Inventing
○ Discovering
○ Imagining
Creative
Intelligence
108
HOWARD GARDNER’S THEORY OF MULTIPLE
INTELLIGENCES
spatial
naturalist
musical
bodily-kinesthetic
linguistic
intrapersonal
interpersonal
logical-mathematical
109
Visualizing the world in 3D.
spatial
110
Understanding living things and reading
nature.
Naturalist
111
Discerning sounds, their pitch, tone, rhythm, and
timbre.
Musical
112
Coordinating your mind with your
body.
Bodily-kinesthetic
113
Finding the right words to express what you
mean.
Linguistic
114
Understanding yourself, what you feel, and
what you want.
Intrapersonal
115
Sensing people’s feelings and motives.
Interpersonal
116
Quantifying things, making
hypotheses and proving them.
Logical-mathematical
117
According to John Mayer and Peter Salovey, it involved abilities to read others’ emotions accurately, to respond to them appropriately, to motivate oneself, to be aware of one’s own emotions, and to regulate and control one’s
own emotional responses.
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
118
MODEL OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Perceiving
Using
Understanding
Managing
119
leads to automatic influence
on cognition.
Perceiving
120
leads to focusing on emotions and related
information.
Using
121
Understand complex emotional
information and how emotions are linked to relationships.
○ encourages thinking about the
implications of emotions.
Understanding
122
Manage emotions to promote emotional,
intellectual, and personal growth.
encourages openness to feelings.
Managing
