Psychopathology P1 Flashcards
what is meant by psychopathology?
the study of mental illness & abnormal, adaptive behaviour
what are the four definitions of abnormality?
statistical infrequency
deviation from social norms
failure to function adequately
deviation from ideal mental health
what is meant by statistical infrequency?
using statistics to define abnormal, any behaviour that is infrequent statistically is seen as abnormal
for example, IQ is normally distributed, average is 100, most people are between 85-115 and only 2% have an IQ below 70
-they are statistically abnormal & diagnosed with intellectual disability disorder
A strength for statistical infrequency is it’s real world application.
Statistial infrequency is useful in the diagnosis, e.g. intellectual disability disorder because this requires an IQ in the bottom 2%.
Also helpful in assessing a range of conditions, e.g. the BDI asseses depression, only 5% of people score 30+, which equals severe depression
-> this means that statistical infrequency is useful in diagnostic and assessment processes
A limit for statistical infrequency is that unusual characteristics can also be positive.
if very few people display a characteristic, then the behaviour is statistically infrequent but doesn’t mean we would call them abnormal. IQ scores above 130 are just as unusual as those below 70, but not regarded as undesirable or needing treatment.
-> this means that statistical infrequency should never be the only definition of abnormality used
what is meant by deviation form social norm?
-Abnormality is based on social context
-when a person behaves in a way that is different from how they are expected to behave they may be defined as abnormal
^societies make collective judgements about correct behaviours in particular circumstances
-three types of consequences of behaviour: few behaviours universally seen as abnormal -> definitions related to cultural context, includes historical differences within the same society
e.g. homosexuality- viewed as abnormal in some cultures but not others
examples of abnormality according to deviation from social norms
- Homosexuality
- Antisocial personality disorder, symptom is to fail to conform to lawful and culturally normative ethical behaviour -> a psycopath is abnormal as they deviate from social norms -> lack empathy
A strength of deviation from social norms is its real world application
deviation from SN is useful un the diagnosis of antisocial personality disorder because this requires failure to conform to ethical standards.
Dfsn is also helpful in diagnosing schizotypal personality disorder which involves strange beliefs and behaviour.
-> this means that DFSN is useful in psychiatric diagnosis
A limit of deviation for social norms is that social norms are situationally and culturally relative.
A person from one culture may label someone from another culture as abnormal using their standards rather than the persons’ standards,
for example, hearing voices is culturally acceptable in some cultures like India, but seen as a sign of abnormality in the UK
-> this means it is difficult to judge deviation from social norm from one context to another
what is meant by failure to function adequately?
a person may cross the line between normal and abnormal at the point that they can’t no longer deal with the demands of everyday life
-Rosenhan & Seligman 1989
what did Rosenhan & Seligman 1989 propose for signs of failure to function adequately?
when someone is not coping:
- they no longer conform to interpersonal rules e.g. maintaining personal space
- they experience severe personal distress
- they behave in a way that is irrational or dangerous
what is an examples of failure to function adequately?
intellectual disability disorder
- a low IQ but not a diagnosis made alone
- there would have to be clear signs that the person wasn’t able to cope with the demands of everyday living
A strength of failure to function adequately is as a threshold for professional help
In any given year 25% of us experience symptoms of mental disorder to some degree according to mind uk. Most of the time we press on, but when we cease to function adequately people seek or are referred for professional help.
-> This means that the FTFA criterion provides a way to target treatment and services to those who need them the most
A limit of FTFA is this definition can lead to discrimination/ social control
it is hard to distinguish between FTFA and a conscious decision to deviate from social norms. for example, people may choose to live off-grid as part of an alternative lifestyle choice or take part in high risk leisure activities.
->this means that people who make unusual choices can be labelled abnormal and their freedom of choice restricted
what is meant by deviation from ideal mental health?
think about what makes someone normal and psychologically healthy, then identify anyone who deviates from this ideal
- Jahodas 1958 criteria
- someones inability to keep a job may be a sign of failure to cope with the pressures of work or a deviation from the ideal of successfully working (overlap between definitions)
what are jahodas 1958 criteria for deviation from ideal mental health?
we have no symptoms or distress we are rational and percieve ourselves accurately we self-actualise we can cope with stress we have good self esteem & lack guilt
A strength of deviation from ideal mental health is that it is comprehensive
Ideal mental health includes a range of criteria for mental health
it covers most of the reasons why we might need help with mental health.
this means that mental health can be discussed meaningfully with a range of professionals e.g. psychiatrist
-> therefore ideal mental health provides a checklist against which we can assess ourselves and others
A limit of deviation from ideal mental health is the definition may be culture-bound
Some criteria for ideal mental health are limited to the US and Europe, e.g. self-actualisation is not recognised in most of the world.
even in Europe there are variations in the value placed on independence, high in germany and low in italy
-> this means that it is difficult to apply the concept of ideal mental health from one culture to another
what is meant by a phobia?
excessive fear and anxiety, triggered by an object, place or situation
- extent of fear is distortionate to the actual harm the phobic stimulus can present
e. g. arachnophobia is the fear of spiders
what are the three types of phobias?
Specific- arachnophobia
social anxiety- fear of public speaking or of public toilets
Agoraphobia - fear of going outside
what are the behavioural characteristics of a phobia?
panic - can be crying, running or screaming
avoidance- effort to prevent contact with phobic stimulus
endurance - remaining with phobic stimulus & experiences anxiety
what are the cognitive charachteristics of a phobia?
selective attention
irrational beliefs
cognitive distortions - unrealistic thinking
what the emotional characteristics of a phobia?
anxiety - unpleasant state of high arousal
fear - immediate response we experience
emotional response is unreasonable
what are the behavioural chs of OCD?
compulsions are repetitive
compulsions reduce anxiety - can be created through obsessions or just anxiety
Avoidance - avoid things which trigger anxiety
what the emotional chs of OCD?
Anxiety & Distress
Depression - low mood & lack of enjoyment
Guilt & Disgust - can be towards others or self
what are the cognitive chs of OCD?
obsessive thoughts - 90% of those with OCD have recurring intrusive thoughts
cognitive coping strategies
insight into excessive anxiety - aware beliefs are irrational, can have catastrophic thoughts
what are the behavioural chs of depression?
energy levels - reduced -> lethargic
disruption to sleep and eating behaviour - reduced sleep -> insomnia, increased sleep -> hypersomnia,
aggression and self harm
what are emotional chs of Depression?
Lowered mood - describe self as ‘empty’/ worthless
Anger
Lowered self-esteem
what are cognitive chs of depression?
poor concentration
attention to the negative -recalling unhappy memories
absolutist thinking - black and white thinking, sees unfortunate things as a disaster
the behavioural explanation for phobias - the two process model
involves classical conditioning and operant conditioning
-Mowrer 1960, argued phobias are learned by classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning
-Little albert
-
classical conditioning in the two process model
-association
Unconditioned stimulus triggers a fear response - an unconditioned response e.g. being bitten creates anxiety
2. Neutral stimulus(dog) is associated with the UCS, e.g. being bitten by a dog
3. NS becomes the conditioned stimulus producing fear - conditioned response e.g. being afraid of the dog from the fear of being bitten
Little albert in two process model
Watson & Rayner 1920 showed how a fear of rats could be conditioned in Little Albert
1. when Albert played with a white rat, a loud noise was made close to his ear, noise (UCS), caused a fear response (UCR)
2. Rat (NS) didn’t create fear until the bang and the rat had been paired together several times
3. Albert showed a fear response (CR) every time he saw the rat (CS)
showed generalisation of fear to other stimuli -> afraid of white furry objects
-authenticity has been questioned due to LA’s age, the experiements age and controls, the ethics
Operant conditioning in the two process model
-maintains the phobia
takes place when behaviour is reinforced or punished
negative r = an individual produces behaviour that avoids something unpleasant
when a person w a phobia avoids a phobic stimulus, escape the anxiety they wouldv’e experienced
-> reduction in fear negatively reinforces avoidance behaviour
example of operant conditioning
e. g. a person with a fear of clowns will avoid circuses and other situations where they will encounter clowns
- relief felt from avoidance reinforces the phobia & ensures it is maintained rather than confronted
