Aggression P3 Flashcards
(93 cards)
1
Q
define aggresion
A
a feeling of anger resulting in hostility, violent behaviour & readiness to attack
2
Q
What is meant by proactive aggresion?
A
cold-blooded
a planned method of getting what you want
3
Q
what is meant by reactive aggresion?
A
hot-blooded
impulsive & angry
accompanied by physiological arousal
biggest cause of social problems
4
Q
what do the neural mechanisms in aggression consist of?
A
Limbic system
Amygdala
Orbitofrontal cortex & serotonin
5
Q
What is the Limbic system?
A
Papez 1937 & Maclean 1952 linked the limbic system to emotions e.g. aggression
includes the hypothalamus, amygdala & hippocampus
6
Q
why is the amygdala important?
A
more reactive amygdala to environmental threats- more likely that aggression will be shown
Support of Gospic 2011
7
Q
Gospic 2011
A
used FMRI brain scans
ppts in lab-based game that provoked aggression
aggressive reactions - fast & heightened response by the amygdala
ppts took benzodiazepine - reduces arousal of autonomic nervous system, before the game -> decreased amygdala activity and decreased aggression.
8
Q
why is the orbitofrontal cortex and serotonin important as a neural mechanism?
A
normal levels of serotonin in the orbitofrontal cortex inhibit neurons -> reduced firing & linked to greater behavioural self-control
Denson 2012
Virrkunen 1994
low levels of serotonin lead to increased aggresion
9
Q
Denson 2012
A
found that decreased serotonin disturbs neural mechanism, reducing self-control and increases impulsive behaviours including aggression
10
Q
Virkkunen 1994
A
found that lower levels of serotonin metabolite 5-HIAA in violent impulsive offenders compared with non-impulsive offenders
11
Q
what does the hormonal mechanism consist of?
A
Testosterone
Animal studies linking aggression to testosterone
progesterone - low levels linked to aggresion in women
12
Q
why is testosterone important in the hormonal mechanism?
A
helps regulate social behaviour via influence on brain areas involved in aggression
high testosterone levels linked to aggression
dolan 2001
Daly & Wilson 1998
13
Q
Dolan 2001
A
found a positive correlation between testosterone and aggression in male offenders with histories of impulsively violent behaviour
14
Q
Daly & Wilson 1998
A
found that males are more aggressive towards others males at 20+ years when testosterone levels peak
15
Q
Why are animal studies important in the hormonal mechanism?
A
AS link aggression to testosterone
Removing testes reduces aggresion in many species
injecting testosterone restores aggressive behaviour (Giammanco 2005)
16
Q
why is progesterone important in the hormonal mechanism?
A
low levels linked to aggression in women
Progesterone levels vary in menstrual cycle, lowest during and after menstruation, highest during ovulation
Ziomkiewicz 2012
17
Q
Ziomkiewicz 2012
A
found negative correlation between progesterone levels and self reported aggresion
18
Q
A limit to the neural mechanism, referring to that non-limbic brain structures are also involved
A
Limbic structures function jointly with the non-limbic orbitofrontal cortex. This is involved in impulse-regulation and inhibition of aggression.
-> Coccaro 2007, claim activity is reduced in psychiatric disorders featuring aggression, this disrupts the OFC’s impulse control function, increasing aggression.
this shows that the neural regulation of aggression is more complex than theories focusing on the amygdala suggest
19
Q
A strength for the neural mechanism, referring to research into the effects of drugs on serotonin
A
Berman’s 2009 participants took part in a lab-based game, giving and recieving electric shocks in response to provocation.
Participants who took paroxetine ( enhances serotonin) consistently gave fewer and less intense shocks than a control group.
-> this study is evidence of a casual link between serotonin and aggression
20
Q
A strength for hormonal mechanisms, referring to support from research with non-human animals.
A
Giammanco’s 2005, review confirms the role of testosterone e.g. increase in testosterone and aggression in male rhesus macaque monkeys during mating season.
In rats, castration of males reduces testosterone and mouse-killing. Injecting female rats with testosterone increases aggression
these findings show that testosterone plays a key role in aggression in a range of animal species
21
Q
A limit of the hormonal mechanism, referring to the evidence linking testosterone and aggression is mixed.
A
Carre and Mehta 2011,
dual hormone hypothesis suggests high levels of testosterone lead to aggression but only when cortisol levels are low.
High cortisol blocks testosterone’s influence on aggression. Cortisol is a hormone that is key to the body’s chronic stress response.
therefore the combined activity of testosterone and cortisol may be a better predictor of aggression than either hormone alone.
22
Q
what does social psychological explanations consist of?
A
frustration-aggression hypothesis
SLT
23
Q
Green 1968 procedure
A
Male uni students completed a jigsaw puzzle, manipulated frustration
some ppts puzzle was impossible
some ran out of time as a confederate was interfering
some were insulted by the confederate
-participants later had choice to give (fake) electric shocks to the confederates
24
Q
Green 1968 findings
A
insulted ppt’s gave strongest shocks on average, then the interfered group and than the impossible-task group
all 3 groups selected more intense shocks than a non-frustrated control group
25
what is the frustration-aggression hypothesis?
proposed by dollard 1939
frustration always leads to aggression and aggression is always the result of frustration
aggression is a psychological drive
experience frustration when a goal is blocked by an external factor
26
What does frustration create?
an aggressive drive leading to aggressive thoughts/behaviour (violent outburst, violent fantasy)
27
What is a catharsis?
expressing the aggressive drive removes the negative emotion, this reduces the drive and makes further aggression less likely
-a psychodynamic concept
28
What are the causes of frustration?
Abstract e.g. government
too powerful and risk punishment e.g. a teacher who gave you a low grade
unavailable e.g. teacher had left room
aggression is displace onto an alternative - not abstract, weaker and available
29
what is the 'weapon effect'?
it shows us cues can make aggression more likely
Berkowitz & LePage 1967 found once students became frustrated in a lab test, they were more likely yo give electric shocks when they could see a weapon next to them
-Shows that frustration only creates a readiness for aggression
30
What is the 'negative effect' theory?
a result of the unclear relationship between frustration anf aggression
Berkowitz argued that frustration is one of many aversive stimuli leading to negative feelings other than anger, like jealousy, despair, helplessness
31
A Strength for frustration-aggression is support for the key concept of displace aggression
Marcus-Newhall 2000 conducted a meta-analysis of studies where aggression was directed at a human target other than one that caused frustration
- >Provoked participants who could not retaliate against the original source were more likely to aggress against an innocent target than participants who were not provoked
- >> This shows that frustration can lead to aggression against a weaker or more available target
32
A limitation for frustration-aggression is that aggression may not be cathartic.
Bushman 2002 found that people who vented anger by repeatedly hitting a punchbag became more aggressive rather than less aggressive, doing nothing reduced aggression
- >Using venting to reduce anger is like using petrol to put out a fire, 'The better people feel after venting, the more aggressive they are' Bushman
- >> This shows a central assumption of the frustration-aggression hypothesis may not be valid
33
A limitation for frustration-aggression hypothesis is the link between frustration and aggression is complex.
Frustration does not always lead to aggression and aggression can occur without frustration, the link is not 'automatic'
- > someone who feels frustrated may behave in a range of different ways e.g. helplessness, someone behaving aggressively may have many reasons to do so
- >> this suggests that frustration-aggression hypothesis is inadequate because it only explains how aggression arises in some situations but no in others.
34
what does the genetic factors in aggression cover?
twin studies
adoption studies
MAOA gene
Gene-environment interactions
35
What did twin studies find in relation to aggression?
50% of variance in aggressive behaviour
| Coccaro 1997
36
Coccaro 1997 - twin studies
studied adult male monozygotic and dizygotic twins
for direct physical aggression, the researchers found concordance rates of 50% for MZ twins & 19% for DZ twins
for verbal aggression the figures were 28% for MZ and 7% DZ twins
37
Why are adoption studies related to aggression?
41% of variance in aggressive behaviour is genetic
similarities in aggressive behaviour between an adopted child and biological parents suggest genetic influences are significant, but similarities w adoptive parents suggest environmental factors
Rhee & Waldman
38
What did Rhee and Waldmans 2003 study find?
meta analysis of direct aggression and antisocial behaviour where a prominent feature is aggression
found genetic variation accounts for 41% of aggression
more or less in line with the twin study findings
39
What is the MAOA gene?
the MAOA gene is linked to low serotonin
controls production of enzyme monoamine oxidase A - regulates serotonin
different variants, MAOA L - low variant produces low levels of enzyme, MAOA H - produces high levels of enzyme
MAOA L is linked w increased aggression
effects men more than women
a predictive factor
40
What does the Enzyme MAOA do?
picks up left over neurotransmitter after a nerve impulse
- it breaks down the neurotransmitter into constituent chemicals to be recycled
- dysfunctions can lead to abnormalities in the MAOA gene and affects levels of serotonin in the brain
41
What is meant by the warrior gene?
the MAOA L variant
possesed by 56% of new zealand maori males, 34% are caucasians
Maori warriors were historically ferocious, -> Warrior gene
42
What did Brunner find in a Dutch family?
1993
studied 28 male family members repeatedly involved in impulsively violent criminal behaviours e.g. rape, attempted murder, assault
these men had low levels of the enzyme MAOA in their brains & the MAOA L variant
-MAOA L linked w extreme violence in Dutch family
43
What is meant by brunners syndrome?
low levels of MAOA gene present in the brain causing over aggression, LOW IQ and borderline mental retardation
44
Stuart 2014 - MAOA gene study
studied 97 men who were part of a treatment programme having been involved in inflicting intimate partner violence
men w low MAOA gene were most violent in group of IPV
also engaged in the highest levels of physical and psychological aggression and inflicted the worst injuries on their partners
45
what is meant by Gene-Environment interactions (GxE)?
Low MAOA gene activity is only related to adult aggression when combined with early traumatic life events
-Frazzetto 2007
46
Frazzetto 2007
found an association between antisocial aggression & the MAOA-L gene in adult males but only in those who experienced significant trauma during the first 15 years of life
those w no trauma weren't especially aggressive as adults even if they possessed the MAOA L gene variant
-strong evidence of gene-environment interaction, diathesis-stress
47
A strength for genetic factors in aggression is support for the role of the MAOA gene.
Research from Brunner shpws the low activity variant is associated with high aggression. Mertins 2011, found a link aswell. Male ppt's with MAOA-H gene variant were more co-operative and less aggressive in a money-distributing game.
-> this finding supports the relationship between MAOA gene activity and aggression, increasing the validity of this genetic theory of aggression
48
A counterpoint for genetic factors strength, support for role of MAOA gene
However, Mertins also found that even ppt's with low activity MAOA variant behaved co-operatively when they knew others were also being co-operative
-> therefore genes don't operate in a vacuum but are influenced by environmental factors that are at least as important in aggression
49
what does the ethological explanation consist of?
```
Adaptive
ritualistic
IRM
FAP
-Tinbergen 1951, male stickleback & aggression
```
50
what is meant by aggression being adaptive?
aggression is beneficial in survival: reduce competition, as defeated animal is rarely killed but forced into territory elsewhere -> reducing competition pressure & establish dominance hierarchies
pettit 2008
51
what did pettit observe?
how aggression in children at play led to dominance heirarchies - adaptive because dominance over others brings benefits
52
what is meant by aggression being ritualistic?
A series of behaviours carried out in a set order
- Lorenz 1966 observed most intra-species aggression consisted of ritualistic signalling and rarely caused physical damage
- Intra-species aggression ends with an appeasement display, indicating acceptance of defeat and inhibits aggression in the winner, preventing injury in the loser
- adaptive because every aggressive encounter ending with death of an individual can threaten the existence of a species
53
what is meant by IRM ?
An innate releasing mechanism is an inbuilt physiological process or structure e.g. a network of neurons in the brain
An environmental stimulus activates the innate releasing mechanism, it triggers or releases a fixed action pattern (FAP)
54
what is meant by FAP?
A fixed action pattern is a pattern of behaviours triggered by an innate releasing mechanism
-Lea 1984 argues that a FAP is a relatively unchanging behavioural sequence found in every individual of a species & follows an inevitable course which can't be altered before it is completed
55
what was the procedure of Tinbergen 1951?
Another male entering a stickleback's territory in the mating season initiates a sequence of aggressive behaviours - red on the competing male's underbelly is the stimulus which triggers the IRM that in turn leads to the aggressive FAP
-Tinbergen presented male sticklebacks with a series of wooden models of different shapes
56
what did Tinbergen find?
if the model had a red underside the stickleback would aggressively display and attack it - but no red meant no aggression
-Tinbergen also found the aggressive FAP did not change from one encounter to another - once triggered it always ran its course to competition without any further stimulus
57
A strength of the ethological explanation is support related to genetics and evolution
Genetic evidence is strong e.g. Brunner showed a link between the MAOA-L gene and aggressioin, twin and adoption studies suggest a genetic component.
Aggressive is an adaptive behaviour and is therefore genetically based.
-> this suggests the ethological approach is correct in claiming that aggression is genetically determined, heritable and adaptive.
58
coutnerpoint for strength of ethological explanation
Nisbett 1963 found homocides based on reactive aggression were more common in the southern US than in the north - 'culture of honour' less prevalent in the north.
-> therefore culture can override innate influences, which is difficult for ethological theory to explain
59
a limit for ethological explanation is that same-species aggression is not always just ritualistic
Goodall 2010 observed male chimps killing members of another community - aggression was systematic. The killing continued even when victims were offering appeasement signals which did not inhibit aggressive behaviour as would be predicted by ethological theory.
-> this challenges the ethological view that same species aggression has evolved into a self limiting and relatively harmless ritual
60
A limit of the ethological explanation is that Lorenz's view of FAP is outdated.
Hunt 1973 argued that FAPs are influenced by the environment and learning. The sequence of behaviours in an aggressive FAP varies between individuals & situations.
FAPs are not fixed but modifiable by experience so ethologists prefer the term 'modal behaviour pattern' to reflect this flexibility.
-> therefore patterns of aggressive behaviour are much more flexible than Lorenz thought, especially in humans.
61
what does the evolutionary explanation consist of?
Anti-cuckoldy
Male retention strategies
Bullying
62
What is meant by anti cuckoldry?
cuckoldry- having to raise another mans offspring, is a waste of a males resources because it contributes to survival of a rivals genes and leaves the father with fewer resources to invest in his own future offspring
- Men in the past would avoid cuckoldry and were most reproductively successful - psychological mechanism evolved to increase anti-cuckoldry behaviours in men
- drives aggressive male retention strategies, which are used to prevent partners from straying
63
what are male retention strategies?
Wilson & Daly 1996 identified two major male retention strategies:
- direct guarding, a mans vigilance over a partner's behaviour e.g. checking who they've been seeing
- Negative inducements, threats of consequences of infidelity e.g. ''i'll kill myself if you leave me'
- Wilson 1955 found women who reported mate RS in partners were twice as likely to experience physical violence at their hands - 73% of these women required medical attention & 53% said they feared for there lives
64
how is bullying an adaptive form of aggression?
bullying is a power imbalance in which a stronger individual uses aggression repeatedly against a weaker person
-researchers have viewed bullying as a maladaptive behaviour e.g. poor social skills - but evolutionary ancestor may have used it to increase chances of survival by creating reproduction opportunities
65
what does Male bullying do?
- ensures access to females and reduces threats from males
- in men bullyinh suggests dominance, acquisition of resources and strength - also wards of potential rivals
- these charachteristics deliver the ideal combination of access to more females and minimal threat from competing males - so aggressive behaviour was naturally selected due males having reproductive success
- benefits bully's health as other children avoid them and experience less aggression & stress
66
what does female bullying do?
helps secure partners fidelity
- female bullying often takes place within rather than outside a relationship & is a method of controlling the partner
- the partner continues to provide resources for future offspring, such behaviour would be naturally selected because it enhanced the woman's reproductive success.
67
A strength of the evolutionary exp us explaining gender differences in uses of aggression.
Gender differences could be due to socialisation but some are due to adaptive strategies e.g. Campbell 1999, argues physical aggression is not adaptive for a female with offspring.
This would put a mothers own and her offsprings survival at risk, so a more adaptive strategy is to use verbal aggression to retain a resource providing partner.
-> therefore such argumets can provide support for the evolutionary approach to explaining aggression
68
A limit of the evolutionary explanation is cultural differences in aggressive behaviour
Aggression is not universal e.g. the Kung san people of Africa have very negative attitudes to the use of aggression. It is discouraged from childhood in boys and girls and is rare due to it is linked with loss of status within the community.
-> therefore since some cultures don't show aggressiveness, such behaviour may not be adaptive
69
A strength of evolutionary ecxp is real world applications to bullying
Anti-bullying strategies usually address a bully's defnecies, but bullying is still prevalent so perhaps a better approach is to view bullying as adaptive.
Bullies gain advantages from bullying so the meaningful roles approach increases the costs of bullying and the rewards of prosocial alternatives.
-> therefore viewing bullying as an adaptive behaviour may lead to more effective anti bullying interventions.
70
how does the media (tv/ computer games etc.) affect aggression?
excessive tv is linked to aggression
violent film content is the most direct media influence
tv/film effects on aggression are not strong
computer games may have a powerful effect
-lab experiment
-correlational studies
71
how does excessive tv viewing link to aggression?
robertson 2013
followed 1037 new zealanders born in 1973 & 1972
measured their TV viewing hours at regular intervals up to age 26
found that time spent watching TV was a reliable predictor of aggressive behaviour in adulthood - convictions & violent crimes
-those who watched most TV were likely to be diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder
-but link may be indirect, due to lack of socialisation & poorer educational attainment
72
how is violent film content the most direct media influence?
Bandura 1963 replicated the bobo doll study
- children watched a film of the doll being beaten up
- outcome was similar to original, w children imitating the aggressive behaviour of the role model
- > SLT must work through media aswell as face to face
73
what are eval points with banduras 1963 replication?
Reliable - the study had multiple observers -> good interrater reliability
poor internal validity due to study of one age group & nursery.
good application -> remove tv & engage more in school -> less violent & add age ratings
74
what study found that tv/film effects on aggression are not strong?
Paik & Comstock 1994 meta analysis
-200 studies
found a significant positive correlation between viewing TV/Film violence and antisocial behaviour
-however they estimated that tv/film violence accounted for only 1-10% variance in children's aggressive behaviour.
-good measure of aggression due to amount of studies in the meta analysis
75
how do computer games have a powerful effect on aggression?
evidence that computer games have a more powerful effect than traditional screen based media due to:
1. game player is active
2. game playing is directly rewarding - operant conditioning
76
what is a experimental study of computer games?
Bartholow & Anderson 2002
- students played violent computer game, mortal kombat, and a non violent game, PGA tournament golf for ten minutes
- all carried out the Taylor competitive Reaction time task, which blasts white noise at chosen volumes to punish the opponent
- those who played the violent game selected significantly higher noise levels, 5.97 decibels, compared with non violent, 4.6 decibels
77
what is a correlational study of computer games?
Delisi 2013
studied juvenile offenders with serious aggressive behaviours such as hitting a teacher/parent/gang fighting
-using structured interviews, they gathered date on several measures of aggression and violent computer game playing
-found that offenders aggressive behaviour was significantly positively correlated with how often they played violent computer games and how much they enjoyed them
-argued that aggression should be a public health issue & computer use a risk factor
78
what is a longitudinal study into computer games?
Adachi & willoughy suggest the link between VVG and aggression may be due to the competitive nature of the games rather than the violence, as the VVG tend to be more competitive than non violent games
79
A limit of media influences is that aggression is defined in various ways
Operationalised as violent behaviour- delisi, volume of white noise - B&A, criminal convictions - Robertson
but although all violence is aggression, not all aggression is violent and not all aggression or violence is necessarily criminal - effects depend on definitions
-> this variations in definitions means that the findings of studies are hard to compare
80
counterpoint to media limit - defined
Meta-analyses help overcome this e.g. Anderson 2010, included 136 studies using different definitions and found increases in aggression linked to violent computer games.
-> therefore meta analyses that include various definitions of aggression are a valid method for uncovering the effects of media on aggression
81
A limit of media influence is the many unsupported conclusions
Many studies are methodologically weak e.g. confounding variables, and meta analyses sometimes include poor quality studies.
Many studies are correlational, no cause and effect, experimental studies lack external validity due to unrealistic measures of aggression so can't be generalised.
-> therefore some researchers may be guilty of drawing premature conclusions based on findings that lacks validity
82
A strength of media influences is that SLT is a convincing theoretical framework
Anderson 2007, note that we accept that exposure to aggression at home is harmful, so logically media are important sources of social learning.
Children are more likely to imitate aggressive behaviours when they see them rewarded e.g. vicarious reinforcement, especially when children identify with on-screen characters.
-> this is a key feature of science - having a unifying explanation to account for findings
83
eval extra for media inf. is research methods
Research studies have limitations due to methodologies, hard to claim violent media causes aggression
However, the research includes the full range of methodologies so strengths of one compensate for the limitations of another e.g. internal and external validity.
-> therefore, taken together the fact that a range of different methodologies come to similar conclusions suggests exposure to violent media may have a casual influence on aggressiveness
84
what role does desensitisation play in agression? the physiological response
Desensitisation = reduced physiological response, sympathetic nervous system
- when we witness agression we experience arousal associated with sympathetic nervous system e.g. increased heart rate
- when children repeatedly view aggression on tv/computer games the physiological effects are reduced e.g. stimulus that is usually shocking has less impact
85
what role does desensitisation play, reduced psychological response?
repeated exposure to violent media promotes a belief that aggression to resolve conflict is socially acceptable
so negative attitutes towards violence weaken, less empathy is felt to victims
- Weisz & Earls 1995, showed ppt's the film straw dogs, containing graphic rape scene. Males showed greater acceptance of rape myths after watching mock rape trial compared with male viewers of a non violent film. also showed less sympathy to victim & less likely to find defendant guilty - no similar effect for female pp'ts
86
A strength of desensitisation is research support.
Krahe 2011 showed violent & non violent films while measuring physiological arousal e.g. skin conductance.
Habitual viewers of violent media showed lower arousal and gave louder bursts of white noise to a confederate w/o being provoked.
-> this lower arousal in violent media users reflects desensitisation to the effects of violence and it also linked to greater willingness to be aggressive
87
A limit of desensitisation, can't explain some aggression
Krahes study did not link media viewing and arousal with provoked aggression. Cartharsis may explain this - viewing violent media is a safety valve, releasing aggressive impulses w/o violence.
-> therefore not all aggression is the result of desensitisation and alternative explanations may be more valid.
88
what role does disinhibition play in aggression?
- exposure to violent media changes usual restraints
most ppl believe violence and aggression are antisocial so there are strong social and psychological restraints against using aggression to resolve conflicts. violent media gives aggressive behaviour social approval -> where effects of victims are minimised -> usual restraints on individuals are loosened after exposure
-enhanced if aggression is rewarded, computer games show violence being rewarded at the same time as its consequences are minimised -> rewards strengthen new social norms
89
A strength of disinhibition is research support
Berkowitz and Alioto 1973, found people who saw a film showing aggression as vengeance gave more shocks to a confederate
Media violence may disinhibit aggression if presented as justified / socially acceptable
-> this demonstrates the link between removal of social constraints and subsequent aggressive behaviour
90
A strength of disinhibition, can explain cartoon violence.
Children do not learn specific aggressive behaviours from cartoon models, e.g. head spinning round. They learn that aggression is acceptable, especially if it goes unpunished.
-> therefore disinhibition explains how cartoon aggression can lead to aggression in those who observe it
91
what role does cognitive priming play in aggression?
- a script learned about how to behave to aggressive cues, repeated experience of aggressive media can provide us with a script of how violent situations may play out, Huesmann 1998 argues that this script is stored in memory so we become 'ready' to be aggressive - automatic process, script directs our behaviour w/o being aware - triggers when we encounter cues in a situation that we perceive as aggressive
- songs with aggressive lyrics may trigger violent behaviour, Fischer & Greitemeyers 2006 male ppt's heard songs featuring aggressively derogatory lyrics about women -> compared to when they listened to neutral lyrics -> ppt's recalled negative qualities about women and more aggressively towards a female confederate.
92
A strength of cognitive priming is real world application
Real world violent situations depend on interpratation of environmental cues, which depend on cognitive scripts stored in memory. Bushman and anderson 2002 claim someone that watches violent media stores aggressive script more readily so they interpret cues are aggressive.
-> this suggests that interventions could potentially reduce aggressive behaviour by challenging hostile cognitive biases.
93
A limit of cognitive priming is confounding variables
Violent video games tend to be more complex in gameplay than non violent video games so complexity is a confounding variable.
Zendle 2018 found that when complexity was controlled, the priming effects of violent video games disappeared.
-> therefore the supportive findings of studies into priming may be partly due to confounding variables
